政策制定过程决策活动概述

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 3: The Policymaking Process:,Decision-Making Activities,第,3,章,政策制定过程：,决策活动,Contents,1.The Policy Process: How Policies Are Made,2.Problem Identification and Agenda Setting,3.Agenda Setting from the Bottom Up,4.Agenda Setting from the Top Down,5.”Nondecisions”: Deciding What Will Not Be Decided,6.Agenda Setting and Mobilizing Opinion: The Mass Media,7.Formulating Policy,8.Interest Groups and Policymaking,9.Policy Legitimation: The Proximate Policymakers,10.Policy Implementation: The Bureaucracy,11.Policy Evaluation: Impressionistic versus Systematic,1.,政策过程：如何制定政策,2.,问题确认与议程设定,3.,自下而上的议程设定,4.,自上而下的议程设定,5.,“不决策”：决定哪些问题不予决策,6.,议程设定与舆论动员：大众传媒,7.,政策形成,8.,利益集团与政策制定,9.,政策合法化：最直接的决策者,10.,政策执行：官僚制,11.,政策评估：印象派与系统化,Althoughitmaybehelpfultothinkaboutpolicymakingasaseriesofprocesses,intherealworldtheseactivities seldomoccursimultaneously,eachonecollapsinginto theothers.,虽然把,政,政策制,定,定视作,一系列,的,的过程,或,或许,有作用,，,，但在,现,现实世,界,界中，,这些活,动,动很少,是,是整齐,划,划一、,井然有,序,序、一,步,步接一,步,步的。,相反，,这,这些行,为,为过程,经常是,同,同时发,生,生的，,甚至是,相,相互交,织,织的。,3.1The PolicyProcess:HowPoliciesAre Made,Table3-1Policymakingasa Process,Policymakingcan be seenasaprocesshowpoliciesare made,in astep-by-step sequences;but in realitytheseprocesses overlapand intertwine.,Process,Activity,Participants,Problem Identification,Publicizing societal problems Expressing demands for government action,Mass media,Interest groups,Citizen initiatives,Public opinion,Agenda Setting,Deciding what issues will be decided, what problems will be addressed by government,Elites, including president, Congress,Policy Formulation,Developing policy proposals to resolve issues and ameliorate problems,Think tanks,President and executive office,Congressional committees,Interest groups,Table3-1Policymakingasa Process,Policymakingcan be seenasaprocesshowpoliciesare made,in astep-by-step sequences;but in realitytheseprocesses overlapand intertwine.,Process,Activity,Participants,Policy Legitimation,Selecting a proposal,Developing political support for it,Enacting it into law,Deciding on its constitutionality,Interest groups,President,Congress,Courts,Policy Implementation,Organizing departments and agencies,Providing payments or services,Levying taxes,President and White House staff,Executive departments and agencies,Policy Evaluation,Reporting outputs of government programs,Evaluating impacts of policies on target and nontarget groups,Proposing changes and “reforms”,Executive departments and agencies,Congressional oversight committees,Mass media,Think tanks,表,3-1,政策制定的一,般,般过程,政策制定可以,看,看做一个过程,政策是如何按,一,一定步骤制定,的,的；但是，在,现,现实中这些过,程,程是相互交织,在,在一起的。,过程,行为,参与者,问题确认,公布社会问题，表达对政府行为的要求,大众媒体、利益集团、公民组织、公共舆论,议程设定,决定对哪些问题作出决策，政府要解决哪些问题,精英、包括总统和国会选举的候选人、媒体,政策形成,提出解决问题和改善困境的政策建议,智囊团、总统和行政官员、国会议员、利益集团,政策合法化,对政策方案作出抉择，寻求政治支持，使之成为法律，决定其合宪性,利益集团、总统、国会、法院,政策执行,组织有关的部门和机构，提供相关费用与服务，征税,总统和白宫成员、行政部门和机构,政策评估,报告政府项目的结果，评估政策对目标群体和非目标群体的影响，建议政策变更或“改革”,行政部门和机构、国会监督委员会、媒体、智囊团,Who decideswhat will bedecided? In a democracy it is sometimesarguedthat,problem identification occurswhenever individuals orgroupsmakedemands,Upon government.,Political scientistJamesE. Andersonwrite:,“,“Forour purposes, a policy problem,can bedefined asa conditionor situationthatproduces needs ordissatisfaction,on thepartof people for which relief orredress from government is sought.,”,”,JamesE. Anderson,PublicPolicymaking: AnIntroduction, 6,th,ed.,(Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 2006), p.80.,3.2 ProblemIdentification andAgenda Setting,问题确认与议,程,程设定,由谁来决定对,什,什么问题进行,决,决策？有观点,认,认为，在民主,体,体制中，不论,何,何时,只要个人或群,体,体向政府提出,要,要求，政策问,题,题的确认就开,始,始了。,政治学家詹姆,斯,斯,E ,安德森曾说过,：,：“对于我们,的,的目的而言，,政,政策问题可以,被界定为，使,某,某些人产生需,要,要或不满的状,态,态或情形，并,要,要求政府给予,或,或补偿。”,詹姆斯,E ,安德森,.,公共政策制定,导,导论（第,6,版），,2006,，,p.80,3.2ProblemIdentification and Agenda Setting,问题确认,与,与议程设,定,定,Butproblemidentification is not that simple. Therearea multitudeofneeds and,dissatisfactionsinsocietythatarenever identified aspolicyproblems, that never,geton the “agenda”of policymakers.Governmentdoesnothingandconditions,remain the same.Demandsthat the government,“,“dosomething”arevirtually,insatiable,yetspace ontheagendaof government policymaking is scarce. This,raises the crucial questionof how and why someconditions in society are identified,as policy issuesandplacedon the governmentalagenda,while othersarenot.,Fora more sophisticatedtreatment of problem identificationandagendasetting,seeJohnKingdon,Agendas,Alternatives, and Public Policies,(Boston:Little,Brown,1984),3.2ProblemIdentification and Agenda Setting,问题确认,与,与议程设,定,定,但是，对,政,政策问题,的,的确认并,非,非如此简,单,单。在社,会,会生活中,有,有大量的,需,需求和不,满,满意,的地方，,从,从来没有,被,被确认为,政,政策问题,，,，也从未,被,被列入决,策,策者的“,议,议程”。,结,结果,就是政府,没,没有做什,么,么事情，,那,那种情形,也,也依旧没,有,有改变。,对,对政府提,出,出“做什,么,么”,的要求可,以,以说是贪,得,得无厌的,，,，而政府,制,制定政策,的,的日程表,上,上的空间,却,却是稀缺,资,资源。,这就提出,了,了一个关,键,键问题：,为,为什么社,会,会中的一,些,些情形被,界,界定为政,策,策问题并,提,提上,政府的议,事,事日程，,又,又是怎样,确,确认的，,而,而为什么,另,另一些情,形,形却不能,被,被认定为,政,政策,问题并提,上,上政策议,程,程。,问题界定,和,和议程设,定,定是一个,更,更加复杂,的,的处理过,程,程,见，约翰,金登的,议程设定,、,、备选方,案,案与公共,政,政策,，,1984,3.2ProblemIdentification and Agenda Setting,问题确认,与,与议程设,定,定,But,inreality,policyissues do not just “happen.”Creating anissue,dramatizing,It,callingattention toit,andpressuringgovernment to dosomething aboutitare,important politicaltactics.These tactics are employedbyinfluentialindividuals,organized interest groups, policy-planning organizations, politicalcandidates and,office-holders,andperhapsmostimportant,themassmedia. Thesearethetactics,of “agenda setting.”,3.2ProblemIdentification and Agenda Setting,问题确认,与,与议程设,定,定,但实际上,，,，政策问,题,题并不只,是,是“发生,”,”的。提,出,出议题，,将,将其夸大,以,以引起关,注,注，,从而向政,府,府施压，,要,要求其采,取,取行动，,这,这些都是,重,重要的政,治,治策略。,这,这些政治,策,策略,被以下的,政,政治参与,者,者运用：,有,有影响力,的,的个人、,有,有组织的,利,利益集团,、,、设计政,策,策的组织,、,、,政治候选,人,人、官居,一,一定职位,的,的人，还,有,有最重要,的,的是大众,媒,媒体。这,些,些都是,“议程设,定,定”中所,涉,涉及的政,治,治策略。,3.2ProblemIdentification and Agenda Setting,问题确认,与,与议程设,定,定,The prevailing model of policymaking in American political science,is a popularly driven, “bottom-up” portrait of decision making.,This “democratic-pluralist” model assumes that in an open society,any problem can be identified by individuals or groups, by candidates,seeking election, by political leaders seeking to enhance their,reputation and prospects for reelection, by political parties seeking,to define their principles and/or create favorable popular images,of themselves, by the mass media seeking to “create” news, and,even by protest groups deliberately seeking to call attention to their,problems. Various crises and disasters; terrorist attacks ,3.3Agenda Setting fromtheBottom Up,自下而上,的,的议程设,定,定,3.3Agenda Setting fromtheBottom Up,自下而上,的,的议程设,定,定,Whetherpublic opinion should shoulddetermine public policy,maynever beresolved.,democratic representatives should servetheinterestofthe,people,butnotnecessarilyconformto theirwill when deciding,questions ofpublicpolicy.,3.3.1 PublicOpinionandAgendaSetting,Edmund Burke,3.3Agenda Setting fromtheBottom Up,自下而上,的,的议程设,定,定,公共舆论,是,是否应该,决,决定公共,政,政策的问,题,题也许永,远,远得不到,解,解决。,哲学层面,&,经验层面,民主选举,的,的代表在,决,决定公共,政,政策问题,的,的时候，,应该服务,于,于人民的,利,利益，,但不必完,全,全屈从于,大,大众的意,志,志。,3.3.1,公共舆论,与,与议程设,定,定,埃德蒙,伯克,3.3Agenda Setting fromtheBottom Up,自下而上,的,的议程设,定,定,We can neverbesurewhethermass opinion shapedpublicpolicy,or public policyshapedmassopinion,Government,as we have seen,attempts tomold publicopinion,toward support of the programs and policiesit espouses.Given,thatendeavor, perfect congruence between publicpolicyand,public opinion couldbegovernment of publicopinionrather,thangovernmentby public opinion,3.3.2 Opinion-PolicyLinkage,V. O. Key,Jr.,public opinion and AmericanDemocracy,3.3Agenda Setting fromtheBottom Up,自下而上,的,的议程设,定,定,我们根本不能确,定,定是大众舆论促,成,成了公共政策还,是,是公共政策,塑造了大众舆论,政府，正如我们,所,所看到的那样，,试,试图塑造大众舆,论,论，,来争取民众对其,倡,倡导的政策和项,目,目的支持。,在这种努力的影,响,响下，公共政策,与,与公共舆论完全,相,相等的结果，,只能说明，公共,舆,舆论为政府所控,制,制，,而不可能是公共,舆,舆论影响政府。,3.3.2,舆论,政策的关系,V.O.,凯伊：,公共舆论与美国,民,民主,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,Publicpolicyshapespublicopinionmore often than opinion,shapespolicy.,First,few people have opinions onthe great bulkof policy,Questions confrontingthe nationsdecision makers.,Second,publicopinion is very unstable.,Third,leadersdo nothave aclearperception ofmass opinion.,3.3.3 Policy Effects,Three Reasons:,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,通常是公共政策,塑,塑造了大众舆论,，,，,而不是大众舆论,造,造就了公共政策,。,。,第一，很少有人,对,对摆在国家决策,者,者面前的这些政,策,策问题,的重要性提出意,见,见或看法。,第二，公共舆论,是,是非常不稳定的,。,。,第三，领导者缺,乏,乏对公共舆论清,晰,晰的洞察与理解,。,。,3.3.3,政策影响,三个理由：,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,We mustnot assume that theopinions expressed inthe news,media are public opinion.,Newspapers believe they arepublic,oftenconfusing their own,opinions withpublicopinion.,They even tellthe mass public whatits opinion is, thus, actually,helpingto mold it toconform to their ownbeliefs.,Decision makers, then, may act in responseto news stories or,the opinions of influentialnewspersons inthe belief that they,are respondingto public opinion.,3.3.4 Media Effects,A source of confusion,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,我们不能凭空假,定,定在新闻媒体上,发,发表出来的观点,就是大众舆论的,观,观点,新闻人士认为他,们,们自己就是公众,，,，经常把他们自,己,己的观点与公众,的,的观点相混淆。,他们甚至还把自,己,己的观点告知公,众,众，以利于塑造,符,符合他们自己信,念,念的观点。,决策者也可能做,出,出行动以回应新,闻,闻事件或有影响,力,力的新闻人士的,意,意见，,并误以为他们是,在,在对公共舆论做,出,出回应。,（意见领袖；默,多,多克的新闻帝国,；,；传播力、思想,力,力、影响力）,3.3.4,媒体影响,混淆的根源,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,Publicopinionpollsfrequentlycreateopinionsby asking,questions thatrespondents never thought about until they,were asked.,Mass opinion on a particularissueis often veryweaklyheld.,Opinions alsovary accordingto thewording of questions.,3.3.5 OpinionPolls,Why They Can?,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,通过一些回答者,在,在接受测验之前,从,从未考虑过的问,题,题，,民意测验可以制,造,造出一些观点。,（盖洛普民意测,验,验）,在某一特定问题,上,上的大众舆论通,常,常是相当模糊的,。,。,公共舆论还随着,测,测验问题的表达,与,与措辞的变化而,变,变化。,3.3.5,民意测验,为什么能？,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,Decision makers can easily misinterpret public opinion,becausethe communications they receive have an elite bias.,Most ofthe communications receivedby decision makers are,intraelite from newspersons,organized group leaders,influential constituents, wealthy political contributors, and,personal friends,people who,for themost part,share the sameviews.,Personswho initiatecommunicationwith decisionmakers,by writing orcallingor visiting their representatives,are,decidedly moreeducated andaffluent thanthe average citizen.,3.3.6 Communicating with Policymakers,Why ?,3.3 Agenda Setting from theBottomUp,自下而上的议程,设,设定,决策者很容易误,解,解大众舆论观点,，,，,因为他们得到的,沟,沟通信息存在一,种,种精英的偏见。,决策者获得的信,息,息绝大多数来自,精,精英内部,新闻人物、,集团组织的领导,、,、有影响的选民,、,、富有的政治捐,助,助者，,或私人朋友。,在,在相当大的程,度,度上，这些人,都,都与决策者拥,有,有,共同的观点。,（保护财产）,那些通过写信,、,、打电话或访,问,问的方式与决,策,策者取得联系,的,的人，,肯定要比普通,民,民众受过更好,的,的教育，也更,加,加富有。,3.3.6,与,决,决,策,策,者,者,的,的,交,交,流,流,与,与,沟,沟,通,通,为,什,什,么,么,？,？,When V.O. Key wrestled with the same problem confronting us,namely, the determination of the impact of popular preferences,on public policy,he concluded that “the missing piece of,the puzzle” was “that thin stratum of persons referred to variously,as the political elite, the political activists, the leadership echelons,or the influentials.”,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自,上,上,而,而,下,下,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,当政治学家小,V.O.,凯伊像我们一样面对这个富有挑战性的问题时，,即大众偏好是否对公共政策具有决定性影响的时候，,他得出结论说，“这个难题容易被忽视的方面”是,“由部分人组成的社会阶层，主要包括政治精英、,政治活动家、领导集团或有影响力的人士”。,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自,上,上,而,而,下,下,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,Table3-2PopularAttitudesTowardGovernmentPolicymaking,TheAmericanpublicishighlyskepticalofpoliticiansandpeopleingovernment,believingthattheyshouldpaymoreattentiontothepublic,sviews.,3.4.1PopularPerceptionsofPolicymaking,大,众,众,对,对,政,政,策,策,制,制,定,定,的,的,认,认,知,知,Over the years, how much attention do you feel the government pays to what the people think when it decides what to do: a good deal, some, or not much?,A good deal 7%,Some 36,Not much 54,Dont know 3,In general, do you think people in government understand what people like you think very well, somewhat well, not that well, or not well at all? (Asked of half the sample),Very well 2%,Somewhat well 27,Not that well 33,Not well at all 35,Dont know 3,Table3-2PopularAttitudesTowardGovernmentPolicymaking,TheAmericanpublicishighlyskepticalofpoliticiansandpeopleingovernment,believingthattheyshouldpaymoreattentiontothepublic,sviews.,3.4.1 Popular Perceptions ofPolicymaking,大众对政,策,策制定的,认,认知,Would you say the government is pretty much run by a few big interests looking out for themselves, or that it is run for the benefit of all the people?,A few big interests 75%,Benefit of all the people 19,Dont know 7,If the leaders of the nation followed the views of the public more closely, do you think the nation would be better off, or worse off than it is today? (Asked of half the sample),Better 81%,Worse 10,Dont know 10,Im going to read you two statements. Please tell me which statement you agree with most.,(A) When members of Congress are thinking about how to vote on an issue, they should read up on polls on the issues, because this can help them get a sense of the publics views on the issue.,Table 3-2 Popular AttitudesTowardGovernment Policymaking,TheAmericanpublicis highly skepticalof politicians and people ingovernment,believing thattheyshouldpaymoreattention to the public,s views.,3.4.1 Popular Perceptions ofPolicymaking,大众对政,策,策制定的,认,认知,(B) When members of Congress are thinking about how to vote on an issue, they should,not,read up on polls on the issues, because this will distract them from thinking about what they think is right.,Read polls to sense publics views 67%,Dont read polls, do what you think right 26,Dont know 7,SOURCE:Center on PolicyAlternatives, as reported in,ThePollingReport, 15February 1999.,表,3-2,大众对政,府,府制定政,策,策的看法,美国公众,对,对政治家,和,和政府部,门,门的工作,人,人员深表,怀,怀疑，认,为,为他们应,该,该更加关,心,心公众的,观,观点（,%,）,李光耀,3.4.1 Popular Perceptions ofPolicymaking,大众对政,策,策制定的,认,认知,这些年来，你认为政府在作决策时，在多大程度上关注过民众的所思所想：非常关注，一定程度的关注，还是不关注？,非常关注,7,有些关注,36,基本不关注,54,不知道,3,总体来说，你认为政府工作人员能够很好地理解民众所思考的事情吗？（测试了抽样人数中一半的人）,理解得很好,2,理解得有些好,27,理解得不那么好,33,理解的根本不好,35,不知道,3,表,3-2,大众对政,府,府制定政,策,策的看法,美国公众,对,对政治家,和,和政府部,门,门的工作,人,人员深表,怀,怀疑，认,为,为他们应,该,该更加关,心,心公众的,观,观点（,%,）,李光耀,3.4.1 Popular Perceptions ofPolicymaking,大众对政,策,策制定的,认,认知,你认为政府是由追求自身利益的少数大集团掌握，还是由为全体人民谋利益的那些人掌握？,追求自身利益的少数大集团,75,为全体人民谋利益的那些人,19,不知道,7,如果国家的领导者更加紧密地遵循民众的观点，你认为今天的国家会变得怎样？,（测试了抽样人数中一半的人）,变得更好,81,变得更糟,10,不知道,10,表,3-2,大众对政,府,府制定政,策,策的看法,美国公众,对,对政治家,和,和政府部,门,门的工作,人,人员深表,怀,怀疑，认,为,为他们应,该,该更加关,心,心公众的,观,观点（,%,）,李光耀,3.4.1 Popular Perceptions ofPolicymaking,大众对政,策,策制定的,认,认知,我将为你阅读下面两段话，请你说出最同意哪一段话。,（,A,）当国会的成员在考虑如何对一个问题进行投票的时候，他们应该对这个问题进行民意测验，这样有助于使他们了解民众对此问题的观点。,（,B,）当国会的成员在考虑如何对一个问题进行投票的时候，他们不应该对这个问题进行民意测验，这样将转移他们的注意力，不能很好地思考他们认为正确的事情。,进行民意测验，了解公众的观点,67,不进行民意测验，做那些自己认为是正确的事情,26,不知道,7,资料来源,：,：,Center on PolicyAlternatives, as reported in,ThePollingReport, 15February 1999.,Theelitistmodel ofagendasettingfocuseson the roleof,Leadersin business,finance, and the media,aswellasin,government.,Agenda setting “begins informally incorporate boardrooms,Social clubs, and discussiongroups,where problemsare,Identified as issues to besolvedby new policies.Itendsin,government,where policies are enacted and implemented.”,3.4.2 EliteAgenda Setting,G. William Domhoff,WhoRules America? PowerandPolitics intheYear 2000,3.4Agenda Setting fromtheTopDown,自上而下,的,的议程设,定,定,精英模型,在,在政策议,程,程的设定,上,上，关注,商,商业、金,融,融、媒体,以,以及,政府领导,的,的角色与,作,作用。,议程设定,是,是“从公,司,司的会议,室,室、社会,的,的俱乐部,、,、讨论小,组,组,这些类似,的,的地方非,正,正式地开,始,始的，在,这,这些地方,，,，问题被,确认为政,策,策问题，,需,需要由新,的,的政策来,加,加以解决,。,。而议程,设,设定,结束于政,府,府环节，,在,在这里政,策,策被制定,并,并加以执,行,行。”,3.4.2,精英的议,程,程设定,G,威廉,多姆霍,夫,夫：,谁统治,美,美国？,2000,年的力,量,量与政,治,治,3.4Agenda SettingfromtheTop Down,自上而,下,下的议,程,程设定,Candidates forpublicoffice at alllevelsmustkeep their names,andfacesbefore thevoters,in publicappearances,interviews,speeches,and press releases.,Whether or nottheirsuccess wasinfact aproductoftheir,policy position, they maybelieve that they have aresponsibility,to put forth policyproposalsconsistentwiththeir campaign,messages and themes.,3.4.3PoliticalEntrepreneurship,3.4 AgendaSetting from the Top Down,自上而下的,议,议程设定,所有级别公,共,共职位的候,选,选人都要保,持,持自身为选,民,民所关注,出席公共场,合,合、接受采,访,访、发表演,讲,讲或发布新,闻,闻。,不论他们选,举,举获胜是否,是,是他们政策,立,立场的结果,，,，他们都会,认为自己有,责,责任提出与,他,他们在选举,活,活动中发布,的,的信息与主,题,题,相一致的政,策,策建议和方,案,案。,3.4.3,政治企业家,3.4 AgendaSetting from the Top Down,自上而下的,议,议程设定,The president and the executive branch are generally expected,to bethe,“,“initiators” ofpolicy proposals, with members of,Congress in theroleof “arbiters”of policyalternatives.,Presidentshavemanymotivations toseize theinitiative in,policymaking. First-termpresidentsmustbuild a recordof,success that later can beusedin theirreelectioncampaign.,Second-term presidents are often motivated bya concernfor,their,“,“place inhistory.”,3.4.4ThePresidentand WhiteHouseStaff,PaulLight.,The PresidentsAgenda,1982,3.4 AgendaSetting from the Top Down,自上而下的,议,议程设定,总统及其行,政,政部门通常,被,被认为是政,策,策建议的“,发,发起者”，,国会议员则,是,是政策抉择,的,的“仲裁者,”,”。,多方面的动,机,机促使总统,要,要掌握政策,制,制定的提议,权,权。,首届任期内,，,，总统必须,建,建立一个成,功,功的记录，,以,以便他们在,寻求连任的,竞,竞选活动中,使,使用。第二,届,届任期内，,总,总统很关心,他,们,们,自,自,己,己,“,“,在,在,历,历,史,史,上,上,的,的,地,地,位,位,”,”,。,。,3.4.4,总,统,统,与,与,白,白,宫,宫,职,职,员,员,保,罗,罗,赖,特,特,：,：,总,统,统,的,的,议,议,程,程,，,1982,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自,上,上,而,而,下,下,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,OccasionallyleadersintheCongresswilltrytosetforththeir,ownagendas.Themostwell-publicizedeffortwasthe1994,“ContractwithAmerica,”,”ledbythenSpeakeroftheHouse,NewtGingrich.,Committeechairsenjoyaspecialadvantageincongressional,agendasetting;theycontroltheagendaoftheircommittee,s,hearings.Congressionalstaffsoftenplayanimportantrole,inbringissuestotheattentionoftheirbosses.,3.4.5CongressandLegislativeStaff,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自,上,上,而,而,下,下,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,国,会,会,的,的,领,领,导,导,有,有,时,时,候,候,也,也,试,试,图,图,提,提,出,出,他,他,们,们,自,自,己,己,的,的,议,议,程,程,。,。,最,最,公,公,开,开,的,的,努,力,力,是,是,1994,年,由,由,众,众,议,议,院,院,发,发,言,言,人,人,纽,纽,特,特,金,格,格,里,里,奇,奇,领,领,导,导,的,的,“,与,与,美,美,国,国,签,签,约,约,”,”,共,和,和,党,党,40,年,来,来,第,第,一,一,次,次,拿,拿,下,下,参,参,议,议,院,院,委,员,员,会,会,主,主,席,席,在,在,国,国,会,会,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,上,上,具,具,有,有,特,特,殊,殊,的,的,优,优,势,势,，,，,他,们,们,控,控,制,制,着,着,委,委,员,员,会,会,的,的,听,听,证,证,安,安,排,排,。,。,国,会,会,议,议,员,员,通,通,常,常,在,在,使,使,某,某,些,些,问,问,题,题,引,引,起,起,他,他,们,们,上,上,司,司,的,的,关,关,注,注,方,方,面,面,扮,演,演,着,着,重,重,要,要,的,的,角,角,色,色,。,。,3.4.5,国,会,会,和,和,立,立,法,法,人,人,员,员,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自,上,上,而,而,下,下,的,的,议,议,程,程,设,设,定,定,Interestgroupsstaffsoftenbringvaluabletechnicalknowledge,topolicyformation,aswellaspoliticalinformationabouttheir,group,spositionontheissues.,Interestgroupsalsoprovidetestimonyatcongressionalhearings,aswellastechnicalreportsandanalysesusedbycongressional,staffs.,3.4.6InterestGroups,3.4AgendaSettingfromtheTopDown,自上而下的议,程,程设定,利益集团的成,员,员经常为政策,的,的形成提供非,常,常有价值的,技术性知识，,以,以及与本集团,在,在政策问题上,的,的立场相关的,政治信息。,利益集团还会,向,向国会提供听,证,证的证言，,以及国会职员,需,需要的技术报,告,告和分析材料,。,。,3.4.6,利益集团,3.4 Agenda Settingfromthe Top Down,自上而下的议,程,程设定,A nondecision, aswe define it, is adecision that results in the,Suppressionor thwartingof alatentor manifestchallenge to,the values and interestsof the decision-maker.To bemore,clearly explicit,non-decision-making is ameansby which,demands forchangein the existing allocation ofbenefits,and privileges inthe community canbe suffocated before,they are even voiced; orkeptcovert; or killedbeforethey,gain acces