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Unit11第十一单元SteelMembers钢构件,Tensionmembersarefoundinbridgeandrooftrusses,towers,bracingsystems,andinsituationwheretheyareusedastierods(连杆).Theselectionofasectiontobeusedasatensionmemberisoneofthesimplestproblemsencounteredindesign.Asthereisnodangerofbuckling,thedesignerneedsonlytocomputethefactoredforce(分解力)tobecarriedbythememberanddividethatforcebyadesignstresstodeterminetheeffectivecross-sectionalarearequired,1.TensionMembers,.Thenitisnecessarytoselectasteelsectionthatprovidestherequiredarea.Thoughtheseintroductorycalculationsfortensionmembersarequitesimple,theydoserve(完成)theimportanttasksofgettingstudentsstartedwithdesignideasandgettingtheir“feetwet”regarding(涉足于)themassiveLRFDManual.,受拉构件在桥梁和屋架、塔、支撑系统以及用作连杆时被见到。用作受拉构件的截面选择是设计中遇到的最简单的问题之一。因为没有屈曲的危险,设计者只需要计算由该构件承受的分解力,并将该力除以设计应力以确定所需的有效横截面面积。然后有必要选择一个钢截面,它提供了需要的面积。尽管这些关于受拉构件的介绍性的计算非常简单,但它们确实完成了这样一个重要的目标,即使学生开始拥有设计的概念,并使他们涉足于大量的LRFD手册。,LoadResistanceFactorDesign(LRFD)钢结构设计规范(荷载抗力系数设计)AllowableStressDesign(ASD),Oneofthesimplestformsoftensionmembersisthecircularrod,butthereissomedifficultyinconnectingittomanystructures.Therodhasbeenusedfrequentlyinthepast,buthasonlyoccasionalusestodayinbracingsystems,lighttrusses,andintimberconstruction.Oneimportantreasonrodsarenotpopularwithdesignersisthattheyhavebeenusedimproperlysoofteninthepastthattheyhaveabadname;however,ifdesignedandinstalledcorrectly,theyaresatisfactoryformanysituations.受拉构件最简单的形式之一是圆钢,但是将其与很多结构连接有一些困难。过去常常采用圆钢,但是如今只偶然用于支撑系统、轻质桁架以及木结构。圆钢不受设计者欢迎的一个重要原因是过去常常被不恰当地使用,以至于落得坏名声;但是如果正确地设计和安装,它们在很多情况下是令人满意的。,Theaveragesizerodhasverylittlestiffnessandmayquiteeasilysagunderitsownweight,injuringtheappearanceofthestructure.Thethreadedrodsformerlyusedinbridgesoftenworkedlooseandrattled(发出嘎嘎声).Anotherdisadvantageofrodsisthedifficultyoffabricatingthemwiththeexactlengthsrequiredandtheconsequentdifficultiesofinstallation.,通常尺寸的圆钢几乎没有刚度,并且在自重下很容易下垂,因而破坏了结构的外观。以前用于桥梁的有螺纹的圆钢常常松掉,并发出嘎嘎声。圆钢的另一个缺点是难以按需要的精确长度来制作,随之发生的是安装的困难。,Whenrodsareusedinwindbracing,itisagoodpracticetoproduceinitialtensioninthem,asthiswilltightenupthestructureandreducerattlingandswaying.Toobtaininitialtensionthemembermaybedetailed(设计)shorterthantheirrequiredlengths,amethodthatgivesthesteelfabricatorverylittletrouble.,Acommonruleofthumb(单凭经验的方法)usedistodetailtherodsabout1/16in.shortforeach20ft.oflength.Anotherverysatisfactorymethodinvolvestighteningtherodswithsomesortofsleevenut(轴套螺母)orturnbuckle(套筒螺母).Part8oftheLRFDManualprovidesdetailedinformationforthesedevices.,当圆钢被用作抗风支撑时,一个很好的做法是使它们产生初张力,因为这将拉紧结构,并减少发出嘎嘎声和摇晃。为获得初张力,杆件可以设计得比它们需要的长度短,该法对钢材的制作者来说几乎没什么麻烦。一个常用的经验法是设计该圆钢时每20英尺的长度缩短约1/16英寸,另一个非常令人满意的方法包括采用某种套筒螺母拉紧圆钢。LRFD手册的第八部分提供了有关这些方法的详细信息。,Theprecedingdiscussiononrodsshouldillustratewhyrolledshapes(轧制型钢)suchasangleshavesupplantedrodsformostapplications.Intheearlydaysofsteelstructures,tensionmembersconsistedofrods,bars,andperhapscables.Today,althoughtheuseofcablesisincreasingforsuspended-roof(悬索屋顶)structures,tensionmembersusuallyconsistofsingleangles,doubleangles,tees,channels(槽钢),Wsections(型钢),orsectionsbuiltupfromplates(薄钢板)orrolledshapes.,Thesememberslookbetterthantheoldones,arestiffer,andareeasiertoconnect.Anothertypeoftensionsectionoftenusedistheweldedtensionplateorflatbar(扁钢),whichisverysatisfactoryforuseintransmissiontowers(发射塔),signs(广告牌),footbridges(人行桥),andsimilarstructures.,前面关于圆钢的讨论应该阐明为什么诸如角钢的轧制型钢已在多数应用中代替了圆钢。在早期的钢结构中,受拉构件包括圆钢、型钢以及可能是索。今天尽管索在悬索屋顶结构中的使用不断增加,受拉构件通常包括单角钢、双角钢、T形钢、槽钢、W型钢,或由薄钢板或轧制型钢组合成的型钢。这些构件看上去比老的更好、更结实、更容易连接。另一种常用的受拉构件是焊接的受拉薄钢板或者是扁钢,它在用于发射塔、广告牌、人行桥以及类似的结构中是非常令人满意的。,Thetensionmembersofsteelrooftrussesmayconsistofsingleanglesassmallas21/221/4forminormembers.Amoresatisfactorymemberismadefromtwoanglesplacedbacktobackwithsufficientspacebetweenthemtopermittheinsertionofplates(calledgussetplates节点板)forconnectionpurposes.,Wheresteelsections(型钢)areusedback-to-backinthismanner,theyshouldbeconnectedevery4or5ft.topreventrattling,particularlyinbridgetrusses.Singleanglesanddoubleanglesareprobablythemostcommontypesoftensionmembersinuse.Structuralteesmakeverysatisfactorychordmembersforweldedtrussesbecausewebmemberscanconvenientlybeconnectedtothem.,钢屋架的受拉构件由单角钢组成,对次要构件其尺寸可小至21/221/4。一种较满意的构件是由两根背对背放置、中间有足够的间距允许插入金属板(称为节点板)以用于连接的角钢制成。在型钢采用背对背的方式处,它们应该每隔4或5英尺连接一下以免发出嘎嘎声,特别是在桥梁桁架中。单角钢和双角钢可能是受拉构件中最常用的类型。对焊接桁架用结构T形钢可得到满意的弦杆,因为腹杆能方便地与它们连接起来。,Forbridgesandlargerooftrussestensionmembersmayconsistofchannels,WorSshapes,orevensectionsbuiltupfromsomecombinationofangles,channels,andplates.Singlechannelsarefrequentlyused,astheyhavelittleeccentricityandareconvenientlyconnected.Although,forthesameweight,WsectionsarestifferthanSsections,theymayhaveaconnectiondisadvantageintheirvaryingdepths.Forinstance,theW1279,W1272,andW1265allhaveslightlydifferentdepths(12.38in.,12.25in.,and12.12in.,respectively)whiletheSsectionsofacertainnominalsizeallhavethesamedepths.Forinstance,theS1250,theS1240.8andtheS1235allhave12.00in.depths.,对桥梁和大型屋架,受拉构件可以由槽钢、W型钢或S型钢,或者甚至由角钢、槽钢和薄钢板的某种组合而成的型钢组成。单槽钢常常被采用,因为它们几乎没有偏心,且容易连接。尽管相同重量的W型钢比S型钢更结实,但W型钢由于其变化的厚度可能存在连接上的不利条件。例如W1279、W1272以及W1265都有略微不同的厚度(分别为12.38英寸、12.25英寸以及12.12英寸),而有着某个名义尺寸的S型钢都有相同的厚度。例如,S1250、S1240.8以及S1235,其厚度都为12英寸。,Althoughsinglestructuralshapesarealittlemoreeconomicalthanbuilt-upsections,thelatterareoccasionallyusedwhenthedesignerisunabletoobtainsufficientareaorrigidityfromsingleshapes.Wherebuilt-upsectionsareuseditisimportanttorememberthatfield(现场)connectionswillhavetobemadeandpaintapplied;therefore,sufficientspacemustbeavailabletoaccomplishthesethings.尽管单个结构型钢比组合的型钢稍微更经济一些,但是当设计者采用单个型钢不能够得到足够的面积或刚度时,偶然也会采用后者。在采用组合型钢处,要记住很重要的一点是将不得不进行现场连接,并进行涂漆;因此,必须获得足够的空间来完成这些事情。,Membersconsistingofmorethanonesectionneedtobetiedtogether.Tieplates(alsocalledtiebars)locatedatvariousintervalsorperforatedcoverplatesservetoholdthevariouspiecesintheircorrectpositions.Theseplatesservetocorrectanyunequaldistributionofloadsbetweenthevariousparts.Theyalsokeeptheslendernessratios(tobediscussed)oftheindividualpartswithinlimitationandtheymaypermiteasierhandlingofthebuilt-upmembers.,Longindividualmemberssuchasanglesmaybeinconvenienttohandleduetoflexibility,butwhenfouranglesarelacedtogetherintoonemember,asshowninFig.11-1,thememberhasconsiderablestiffness.Noneoftheintermittenttieplatesmaybeconsideredtoincreasetheeffectiveareasofthesections.Astheydonottheoreticallycarryportionsoftheforceinthemainsections,theirsizesareusuallygovernedbyspecificationsandperhapsbysomejudgmentonthedesignerspart.Perforatedcoverplatesareanexceptiontothisrule,aspartoftheirareascanbeconsideredasbeingeffectiveinresistingaxialload.,由几个截面组成的构件需要连接在一起。以不同的间隔设置的连接板(也称为连杆)或多孔盖板用以保持不同的构件均在其恰当的位置上。这些板用以调整不同部分之间的荷载分配的不平衡。它们也使单个部分的长细比(将要讨论)保持在限制的范围内,这样他们可以允许较容易地处理组合构件。长长的单个构件如角钢,由于易弯性可能处理时有困难,但是当四根角钢绑扎成一根构件时,如图11-1所显示的,该构件具有相当大的刚度。可以不考虑间断的连接板对截面的有效面积的增加。因为他们理论上不承受主截面中的部分力,它们的尺寸通常由规范以及可能根据设计者方面的某些判断来决定。多孔盖板则是该规则的例外,因为它们的部分面积在抵抗轴向荷载时可认为是有效的。,AfewofthevarioustypesoftensionmembersingeneraluseareillustratedinFig.11-1.Inthisfigurethedottedlinesrepresenttheintermittenttieplatesorbarsusedtoconnecttheshapes.常用的不同类型的一些受拉构件被举例在图11-1中。在该图中虚线代表了用以连接型钢的间断的连接板或连杆。,Steelcablesaremadewithspecialsteelalloywireropes(特种合金钢丝绳)whicharecold-drawntothedesireddiameter.Theresultingwireswithstrengthsofabout200,000to250,000psicanbeeconomicallyusedforsuspensionbridges,cablesupported(悬索)roofs,skilifts(运送滑雪者上山坡的吊索设备),andothersimilarapplications.钢索是由冷拉至需要直径的特种合金钢丝绳制成的。形成的具有强度约为200,000到250,000psi的钢丝能经济地用于悬索桥、悬索屋顶、运送滑雪者上山坡的吊索设备以及其他类似的应用。,Normally,toselectacabletensionmemberthedesignerusesamanufacturerscatalog.Fromthecatalogtheyieldstressofthesteelandthecablesizerequiredforthedesignforcearedetermined.Itisalsopossibletoselectclevises(马蹄钩)orotherdevicestouseforconnectors(连接器)atthecableends.通常,为选择索的受拉构件,设计者采用制造商的产品目录。从产品目录中可以确定钢材的屈服应力和设计力所需要的索的尺寸。也有可能选择马蹄钩或其他的装置用作索端的连接器。,2.AxiallyLoadedCompressionMembersThereareseveraltypesofcompressionmembers,thecolumnbeingthebestknown.Amongtheothertypesarethetopchordsoftrusses,bracingmembers,thecompressionflangesofrolledbeamsandbuilt-upbeamsections,andmembersthataresubjectedsimultaneouslytobendingandcompressiveloads.Columnsareusuallythoughtofasbeingstraightverticalmemberswhoselengthsareconsiderablygreaterthantheirthicknesses.Shortverticalmemberssubjectedtocompressiveloadsareoftencalledstruts(支柱)orsimplycompressionmembers;however,thetermscolumnandcompressionmemberwillbeusedinterchangeablyinthepagesthatfollow.,有多种受压构件,其中柱子是最知名的。在其他的类型中有桁架的上弦杆、支撑杆件、轧制梁和组合梁截面的受压翼缘以及同时承受弯曲荷载和压力荷载的构件。柱子通常被认为是直的竖向构件,其长度比它的厚度大得多。承受压力的短的竖向构件常常称为支柱或简单地称为受压构件;但是术语柱子和受压构件在下面的页面中将被交替地使用。,Therearethreegeneralmodesbywhichaxiallyloadedcolumnscanfail.Theseareflexuralbuckling,localbucklingandtorsionalbuckling.Thesemodesofbucklingarebrieflydefinedbelow.(1)Flexuralbuckling(alsocalledEulerbuckling欧拉屈曲)istheprimarytypeofbuckling.Membersaresubjecttoflexureorbendingwhentheybecomeunstable.(2)Localbucklingoccurswhensomepartorpartsofthecrosssectionofacolumnaresothinthattheybucklelocallyincompressionbeforetheothermodesofbucklingcanoccur.Thesusceptibility(敏感性)ofacolumntolocalbucklingismeasuredbythewidth-thicknessratiosofthepartsofitscrosssection.(3)Torsionalbucklingmayoccurincolumnsthathavecertaincross-sectionalconfigurations(外形).Thesecolumnsfailbytwisting(torsion)orbyacombinationoftorsionalandflexuralbuckling.,轴向受力的柱子发生失效有三种一般的模式。它们是弯曲屈曲、局部屈曲和扭转屈曲。这些屈曲模式简单地定义如下:(1)弯曲屈曲(也称为欧拉屈曲)是主要的屈曲类型。当构件变得不稳定时,它们易于弯曲。(2)局部屈曲发生在柱子某部分的横截面太薄了以至于在其他屈曲模式发生之前它们便受压局部屈曲。柱子对局部屈曲的敏感性可以通过该部分的横截面的宽厚比来测得。(3)扭转屈曲可以发生在具有某种横截面外形的柱子中。这些柱子由于扭曲(扭转)或扭转屈曲与弯曲屈曲的组合而失效。,Thelongeracolumnbecomesforthesamecrosssectionthegreaterbecomesitstendencytobuckleandthesmallerbecomestheloaditwillsupport.Thetendencyofamembertobuckleisusuallymeasuredbyitsslendernessratio,whichhaspreviouslybeendefinedastheratioofthelengthofthemembertoitsleastradiusofgyration(回转半径).Thetendencytobuckleisalsoaffectedbysuchfactorsasthetypesofendconnections,eccentricityofloadapplication,imperfection(缺陷)ofcolumnmaterial,initialcrookedness(弯曲)ofcolumn,residualstressesfrommanufacture,etc.相同横截面的柱子越长,则屈曲的趋势越大,它能承受的荷载将越小。构件屈曲的趋势通常根据其长细比来测定,它在先前已定义为构件的长度与它最小的回转半径之比。屈曲的趋势也受到诸如端部连接的类型、荷载施加的偏心距、柱子材料的缺陷、柱子的初始弯曲、制造引起的残余应力等因素的影响。,Theloadssupportedbyabuildingcolumnareappliedbythecolumnsectionabove(在.上方)andbytheconnectionsofothermembersdirectlytothecolumn.Theidealsituationisfortheloadstobeapplieduniformlyacrossthecolumn,withthecenterofgravity(重心)oftheloadscoincidingwith(与.一致)thecenterofgravityofthecolumn.Furthermore,itisdesirable(希望)forthecolumntohavenoflaws(缺陷),toconsistofahomogeneous(均匀的)material,andtobeperfectlystraight,butthesesituationsareobviouslyimpossibletoachieve.建筑物中的柱子承受的荷载是由其上方的柱子部分和直接与柱子相连的其他构件施加的。理想的情况是该荷载均匀地施加在柱子上,荷载的重心与柱子的重心一致。而且希望柱子没有缺陷、由均匀的材料组成以及是完全笔直的,但是这些情形显然不可能达到。,Loadsthatareexactlycentered(居中)overacolumnarereferredtoasaxialorconcentric(同轴的)loads.Thedeadloadsmayormaynotbeconcentricallyplacedoveraninteriorbuildingcolumnandtheliveloadsmayneverbecentered.Foranoutsidecolumntheloadsituationisprobablyevenmoreeccentric(偏心),asthecenterofgravityoftheloadswillusuallyfallwellon(恰好落在)theinnersideofthecolumn.Inotherwords,itisdoubtfulthataperfectaxiallyloadedcolumnwilleverbeencounteredinpractice.在柱子上精确居中的荷载称为轴向或同轴荷载。恒载可能或不一定同轴地置于建筑屋内部的柱子上,而活载可能永远也不会居中。外部柱子的荷载情形甚至可能更偏心,因为荷载的重心通常恰好落在柱子的内侧。换句话说,在实际中曾遇到一个完全轴向受荷的柱子是令人怀疑的。,Theotherdesirablesituationsarealsoimpossibletoachievebecauseofthefollowing:imperfectionsofcross-sectionaldimensions,residualstresses,holespunchedforbolts,erectionstresses,andtransverseloads.Itisdifficulttotakeintoaccountalloftheseimperfectionsinaformula.由于下列的原因,其他希望的情形也是不可能达到:横截面尺寸的缺陷;残余应力;螺栓冲孔;安装应力;横向荷载。很难在一个公式中考虑所有的这些缺陷。,Slight(微小的)imperfectionsintensionmembersandbeamscanbesafelydisregarded(忽略)astheyareoflittleconsequence(后果).Ontheotherhand(相反),slightdefects(缺陷)incolumnsmaybeofmajorsignificance(重大意义).Acolumnthatisslightlybentatthetimeitisputinplace(就位)mayhavesignificant(很大的)bendingmomentsequaltothecolumnloadtimestheinitiallateraldeflection.受拉构件和梁中微小的缺陷可以安全地忽略掉,因为它们几乎没有什么后果。相反,柱子中微小的缺陷可能意义重大。柱子就位时的轻微弯曲可能产生很大的弯距,它等于柱子上的荷载乘以初始的横向挠度。,Obviously,acolumnisamorecritical(关键的)memberinastructurethanisabeamortensionmemberbecauseminor(较小的)imperfectionsinmaterialsanddimensionsmeanagreatdeal.Thefactcanbeillustratedbyabridgetrussthathassomeofitsmembersdamagedbyatruck.Thebendingoftensionmembersprobablywillnotbeseriousasthetensileloadswilltendtostraighten(使.伸直)thosemembers;butthebendingofanycompressionmembersisaseriousmatter(问题),ascompressiveloadswilltendtomagnify(扩大)thebendinginthosemembers.显然,比起梁或受拉构件,结构中的柱子是较为关键的构件,因为材料和尺寸中较小的缺陷意味着很多。该事实可通过一个桥梁桁架来说明,其有一些被卡车损坏的构件。受拉构件的弯曲可能不是严重的问题,因为拉力往往使这些构件伸直;但是任何受压构件的弯曲则是一个严重的问题。因为压力往往扩大了这些构件中的弯曲。,Thepreceding(前述的)discussionshouldclearlyshowthatcolumnimperfectionscausethemtobendandthedesignermustconsiderstressesduetothosemomentsaswellasduetoaxialloads.前述的讨论应该清楚地表明是柱子的缺陷使它们弯曲,并且设计者必须考虑由于这些弯距和轴向力引起的应力。,Thespacing(间距)ofcolumnsinplanestablishes(确定)whatiscalledabay(开间).Forinstance,ifthecolumnsare20ft.oncenterinonedirectionand25ft.intheotherdirectionthebaysizeis20ft25ft.Largerbaysizesincreasetheusersflexibility(灵活性)inspaceplanning.Astoeconomy,adetailedstudybyJohnRuddyindicatesthatwhenshallowspreadfootings(扩展基础)areused,bayswithlength-to-widthratiosofabout1.25to1.75andareasofabout1000sqft.arethemostcostefficient(费用最经济).Whendeepfoundationsareused,hisstudyshowsthatlargerbayareasaremoreeconomical.,平面上柱子的间距确定了什么是一个开间。例如如果柱子在某个方向的中心距为20英尺,在另一个方向的中心距为25英尺,则开间尺寸为20英尺25英尺。较大的开间尺寸加大了使用者在空间布置时的灵活性。就经济性而言,JohnRuddy进行的详细研究表明,当采用浅的扩展基础时,长宽比约为1.25至1.75的开间、面积约为1000平方英尺是费用最经济的。当采用深基础时,他的研究显示较大的开间面积更经济。,TypeofBeamsBeamsareusuallysaidto(被认为)bemembersthatsupporttransverseloads.Theyareprobablythoughtofasbeingusedinhorizontalpositionsandsubjectedtogravityofverticalloads;buttherearefrequentexceptionsrafters(椽子),forexample.,3.Beams梁,梁的种类梁通常被认为是支撑横向荷载的构件。它们可能被认为是用于水平位置,并且承受竖向的重力荷载;但是常常有例外-例如椽子。,Amongthemanytypesofbeamsarejoists(搁栅),lintels(过梁),spandrels(托梁),stringers(纵梁),andfloorbeams(横梁).Joistsarethecloselyspacedbeamssupportingthefloorsandroofsofbuilding,whilelintelsarethebeamsoveropeningsinmasonrywallssuchaswindowsanddoors.Aspandrelbeamsupportstheexteriorwallsofbuildingsandperhapspartofthefloorandhallway(走廊)loads.Thediscoverythatsteelbeamsasapartofastructuralframecouldsupportmasonrywalls(togetherwiththedevelopmentofpassengerelevators)issaidto(据说)havepermitted(使.成为可能)theconstructionoftodays“skyscrapers”.,Stringersarethebeamsinbridgefloors(桥面)runningparalleltotheroadway(车道),whereasfloorbeamsarethelargerbeamsinmanybridgefloorswhichareperpendiculartotheroadwayofthebridgeandareusedtotransferthefloorloads(板面荷载)fromthestringerstothesupportinggirders(大梁)ortrusses.Thetermgirderisratherloosely(不严格)usedbutusuallyindicatesalargebeamandperhapsoneintowhichsmallerbeamsareframed(构成).Theseandothertypesofbeamsarediscussedinthesections(章节)tofollow.,在很多梁的类型中有搁栅、过梁、托梁、纵梁和横梁。搁栅是支撑建筑物楼面和屋面的密布梁,而过梁是在砌体墙中诸如窗洞和门洞以上的梁。托梁支撑建筑物的外墙以及可能部分的楼面和走廊的荷载。据说发现钢梁作为结构框架的一部分能支撑砌体墙(加上载人电梯的发展)使今天的摩天大楼的建造成为可能。纵梁是桥面中平行于车道布置的梁,而横梁是很多桥面中垂直于桥梁车道的较大的梁,被用来将纵梁上的板面荷载传递至支撑大梁或桁架。术语大梁的采用是相当的不严格,但通常显示了一根较大的梁,或许是一根由较小的梁构成的大梁。这些和其他类型的梁在下面的章节中进行讨论。,SectionsUsedasBeamsTheWshapeswillnormallyprovetobethemosteconomicalbeamsections(型钢梁)andtheyhavelargelyreplacedchannelsandSsectionsforbeamusage.Channelsaresometimesusedforbeamssubjectedtolightloads,suchaspurlins(檩条),andinplaceswhereclearancesavailable(可利用的净空)requirenarrowflanges.Theyhaveverylittleresistancetolateralforcesandneedtobebraced.TheWshapeshavemoresteelconcentratedintheirflangesthandoSbeamsandthushavelargermomentsofinertiaandresistingmomentsforthesameweights.,Theyarerelativelywide(较宽)andhaveappreciablelateralstiffness.(Thesmallamountofspace(范围)devotedto(供.用)SbeamsintheLRFDManualclearlyshowshowmuchtheirusehasdecreasedfromformeryears(前些年).Theyaretodayusedprimarilyforspecialsituationaswherenarrowflangewidthsaredesirable,orwhereshearingforcesareveryhigh,orwherethegreaterflangesthicknessnexttothewebmaybedesirablewherelateralbendingoccursasperhapswith(就象)cranerails.),梁的断面W型钢通常证明是最经济的型钢梁,而且作为梁的使用,它们已经大量地代替了槽钢和S型钢。槽钢有时用作支撑轻负荷的梁如檩条,以及用在可利用的净空需要狭窄翼缘的位置处。它们对横向力几乎没有抵抗力,因此需要被支撑。W型钢的钢材比S型钢梁更多的集中在它们的翼缘上,这样同样重量时就有较大的惯性矩和抵抗弯距。它们较宽,并有明显的横向刚度。(在LRFD手册中供S型钢梁用的少量的范围清楚地显示了它们的使用从前些年开始已经降低了多少。今天它们主要被用于特殊的情况如需要狭窄的翼缘宽度处,或者剪力很大处,或者紧接着腹板处发生横向弯曲可能需要较大的翼缘厚度处,大概就象吊车轨道。),Anothercommontypeofbeamsectionistheopenwebjoist(空腹搁栅)orbarjoist(型钢搁栅).Thistypeofsectionwhichiscommonlyusedtosupportfloorandroofslabsisactuallyalightshop-fabricatedparallelchordtruss(平行弦桁架).Itisparticularlyeconomicalforlongspansandlightloads.,另一个普通的梁截面的类型是空腹搁栅或型钢搁栅。这种通常用来支撑楼面板和屋面板的断面类型实际上是一个轻质的工厂制造的平行弦桁架。它在大跨度和轻负荷时特别经济。,作业练习通过一篇ReadingMaterial的学习,进一步了解钢构件的截面形式及其特点,以及冷加工后的钢构件的特点。,CrackingLoadandUltimateMoment开裂荷载和极限弯矩,Ithasbeenshownthatavariationintheexternalloadactingonaprestressedbeamresultsinachangeinthelocationofthepressureline(压力线)forbeamsintheelasticrange.Thisisafundamentalprincipleofprestressedconstruction.Inanormalprestressedbeam,thisshiftinthelocationofthepressurelinecontinuesatarelativelyuniformrateastheexternalloadisincreased,tothepointwherecracksdevelopinthetensionfiber.Afterthecrackingloadhasbeenexceeded,therateofmovementinthepressurelinedecreasesasadditionalloadisapplied,andasignificantincreaseinthestressintheprestressingtendonandtheresultantconcreteforcebeginstotakeplace.,ActionUnderOverload-CrackingLoad超载(-开裂荷载)下的反应,Thischangeintheactionoftheinternalmomentcontinuesuntilallmovementofthepressurelineceases.Themomentcausedbyloadsthatareappliedthereafter(其后)isoffset(抵消)entirelybyacorrespondingandproportionalchangeintheinternalforces,justasinreinforced-concreteconstruction.Thisfact,thattheloadintheelasticrangeandtheplasticrangeiscarriedbyactionsthatarefundamentallydifferent,isverysignificantandrenders(使.变得)strengthcomputationsessentialforalldesignsinordertoensurethatadequatesafetyfactorsexist.Thisistrueeventhoughthestressesintheelasticrangemayconformto(符合)arecognized(公认的)elasticdesigncriterion.,已经显示作用在一根预应力梁上的外部荷载的变化会导致梁在弹性阶段时其压力线位置的变化。这是预应力结构的基本规律。在一根普通的预应力梁中,随着外力的增加,其压力线位置以一个相对均匀的速度不断移动直至受拉纤维形成开裂的位置。在已经超过开裂荷载后,随着附加荷载的施加,压力线移动的速度便会降低,且使预应力钢筋束中的应力和合成的混凝土力开始发生显著的增加。内部弯矩的作用不断变化直到所有压力线的移动都停止。其后施加的荷载引起的弯矩完全通过相应的、且按比例的内力变化来抵消,正如在钢筋混凝土的结构中。这个事实,即弹性阶段和塑性阶段的力由基本不同的作用来传送是非常重要的,且使强度计算变得对所有的设计都是必要的,以确保存在足够的安全系数。这是正确的,即使弹性阶段的应力可能符合公认的弹性设计准则。,Itshouldbenotedthattheloaddeflectioncurveisclosetoastraightlineuptothecrackingloadandthatthecurvebecomesprogressively(逐渐)morecurvedastheloadisincreasedabovethecrackingload.Thecurvature(弯曲)oftheload-deflectioncurveforloadsoverthecrackingloadisdueto(由于.所造成的)thechangeinthebasicinternalresistingmomentactionthatcounteracts(抵消)theappliedloads,asdescribedabove,aswellastoplasticstrainsthatbegintotakeplaceinthesteelandtheconcretewhenstressedtohighlevels(受到很大压力).应该注意到荷载挠度曲线在开裂荷载以内是接近直线的,且在超过开裂荷载后,该曲线随着荷载的增加逐渐变得更弯曲。正如上面所描述的,当超过开裂荷载时,其荷载-挠度曲线的弯曲是由于抵消施加荷载的基本内部抵抗弯矩作用的变化以及当受到很大压力时钢筋和混凝土中开始发生的塑性应变所造成的。,Insomestructuresitmaybeessentialthattheflexuralmembersremaincrackfreeevenundersignificantoverloads.Thismaybeduetothestructuresbeingexposedtoexceptionallycorrosiveatmospheresduringtheirusefullife.Indesigningprestressedmemberstobeusedinspecialstructuresofthistype,itmaybenecessarytocomputetheloadthatcausescrackingofthetensileflangeinordertoensurethatadequatesafetyagainstcrackingisprovidedbythedesign.Thecomputationofthemomentthatwillcausecrackingisalsonecessarytoensurecompliancewithsomedesigncriteria(criterion的复数形式).,在一些结构中,保持受弯构件不开裂可能是必要的,甚至在明显的超载下。这可能是由于结构在它们的有效寿命期间被暴露在特别腐蚀的空气中的原因。当设计预应力构件用于这种类型的特殊结构时,可能有必要计算引起受拉翼缘开裂的荷载,以确保该设计提供足够抵抗开裂的安全性。也有必要计算会导致开裂的弯矩,以确保符合一些设计标准。,Manytestshavedemonstratedthattheload-deflectioncurvesofprestressedbeamsareapproximatelylinearuptoandslightlyinexcessoftheloadthatcausesthefirstcracksinthetensileflange.(Thelinearityisafunctionoftherateatwhichtheloadisapplied.)Forthisreason,normalelastic-designrelationshipscanbeusedincomputingthecrackingloadbysimplydeterminingtheloadthatresultsinanettensilestressinthetensileflange(prestressminustheeffectsoftheappliedloads)thatisequaltothetensilestrengthoftheconcrete.Itiscustomarytoassumethattheflexuraltensilestrengthoftheconcreteisequaltothemodulusofrupture(断裂模量)oftheconcretewhencomputingthecrackingload.,很多试验证明,在引起受拉翼缘最初开裂的荷载以内或稍微超过时,预应力梁的荷载-挠度曲线是近似直线的。(直线性是荷载施加速度的函数。)因此,通过简单地确定导致
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