资源描述
UNIT 11 Accident causation models事故致因理论The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena, and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modern theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. 安全管理的最重要的目的是维护和促进作业人员的工作健康和安全。在制定预防措施时，了解事故和其他有害事件的原因，以及它们如何发展是非常重要的。事故理论的目的是刻画事故的现象，并解释导致事故发生的机制。所有现代的理论都是基于事故的因果关系模型，改模型试图解释最终产生损失的事件序列。In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. 在古代，事故被看作是上帝的行为，人们很少可以去防止它们。20世纪初，人们认为，物的不安全状态是发生事故的根本原因。Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping, and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things: the human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment.安全工作者集中在提高机器防护、维护、检修（的工作上）。在大多数情况下，事故是人的行为和物的状态或周边环境条件的结果。Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions, and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organizations operation. 彼得森的因果关系理论，从个人行为和周围环境条件扩展到了整个管理系统。他的结论是不安全的行为，不安全的状态和意外事故都是企业管理体系的异常标识。此外，他还指出，高层管理人员要负责建立一个可以有效地控制企业运行相关危险源的系统。The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays, this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work.个人错误可能是有意的或无意的。拉斯穆森和Jensen提出了三个层次的技术规则知识模型，用于描述不同类型的人为错误的起源。如今，这种模型是工作中的人为错误检查的标准方法之一。2 Safety management as an organizational activity作为安全活动的安全管理Safety management is one of the management activities of a company. Different companies have different management practices, and also different ways to control health and safety hazards. Organizational culture is a major component affecting organizational performance and behavior. 安全管理是企业的管理活动之一。不同的企业有不同的管理办法，以及不同的方式来控制健康和安全隐患。企业文化是影响企业绩效和行为的一个重要组成部分。One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said that organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems”. The concept of safety culture is today under intensive study in industrialized countries. Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题（指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题）。如今，安全文化的概念是工业化国家的热点话题。These include: organizational responsibility for safety, management attitudes towards safety, management activity in responding to health and safety problems, safety training and promotion, level of risk at the workplace, workers involvement in safety, and status of the safety officer and the safety committee.这些措施包括：企业安全生产责任制，安全管理态度，应对健康和安全问题的管理活动，安全培训和推广，工作场所的风险水平，作业人员的安全参与，安全员和安全委员会。句子分析：All modern theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. 所有现代的理论都是基于事故的因果关系模型，改模型试图解释最终产生损失的事件序列。The strategic management, leadership, motivation, and the personnels visible and hidden values are some issues that are now under intensive study. 当今的热点话题是战略管理，领导，激励，人员的可见的和隐藏的价值。UNIT 2System Safety系统安全System safety engineering draws upon system safety concepts and the approaches used in system engineering. Its objective is to safely integrate all system components in a manner consistent with other system criteria. 安全系统工程应用了系统安全的概念和系统工程中的方法。其目的是以与其他系统标准相一致的方式安全地集合系统成分。It involves the application of scientific and management principles for the timely recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards. Through the logical programming of these efforts over a systems life cycle, the desired level of safety can be realized. 它涉及科学的管理原则的应用，以便及时识别，评估和控制危险源。通过系统生命周期的逻辑编程，可以实现期望的安全水平。System safety programThe degree of safety achieved in a system depends on the importance it is given by system designers, managers, and operators. The efforts necessary to assure that sufficient emphasis is placed on system safety are often organized into formal programs. 在一个系统中能够实现的安全程度取决于系统设计人员，管理人员和操作人员对安全的重视程度。在正式的规划中，有必要确保充分的强调落实到系统安全中。The objectives of such programs are to recognize, evaluate, and control system hazards as early in the life cycle as possible. Adequate safety input during the initial phases is the key to produce an inherently safe system. Effective system safety programs also eliminate the schedule delays and costly changes that often result in systems that did not have adequate safety planning.（系统安全）规划的目的是尽早地在系统生命周期识别、评估和控制系统危险源。初期阶段，足够的安全投入是建立本质安全系统的关键。有效的系统安全规划还消除了工期延误，昂贵的变化。The heart of a system safety program is in the performance of hazard analyses. These efforts also involve most of the detail work of system safety engineering. Analyses are conducted to identify and evaluate hazards within a system. With this information, responsible officials may determine the safest, most efficient means of controlling the hazards identified. 系统安全规划的核心是进行危险源分析。这些还涉及系统安全工程的具体工作。分析有利于识别和评估系统内的危险源。有了这些信息，负责人可以确定最安全、最有效控制危险的措施。With its accident sources eliminated, the entire system also becomes more effective in performing its task. In general, hazard analyses are conducted as follows:Gain an understanding of the system.Define the scope and purpose of the analysis.Select and apply an analysis technique.Evaluate the results.随着消除事故来源，整个系统也变得更有效地完成其任务。在一般情况下，危险分析的步骤如下：理解系统。定义分析的范围和目的。选择和应用分析技术。评估结果。Hazard analysis is not an intuitive process. For an analysis to be meaningful, it must be logical, accurate, descriptive of the system, and based on valid assumptions. Its success largely depends on the skill and knowledge of those conducting the analysis. Anyone who has a thorough, working knowledge of both the system under consideration and the analysis technique to be used may perform a hazard analysis. 危险分析过程不是凭直觉就能完成的。对于一个有意义的分析，必须在有效的假设基础上对系统进行合理的、准确的描述。它的成功主要取决于进行分析的人所具有的技能与知识。只要对被研究的系统和用于分析的技术有全面的了解，任何人都可以进行危险分析。UNIT 3A process is a system whereby necessary components function and interact to produce a desired goal. Similarly, an ergonomics process is a plan in which a facility gathers all relevant information on work organization, employee capabilities and limitations, and work-related MSDs, to develop solutions to better accommodate these employees and reduce MSD rates and their associated costs.一个过程是一个系统规定的必要组成部分的功能和相互作用，从而产生一个预期目标。同样，人体工程学设计的过程是提出更好地满足员工并降低骨骼受伤率及其相关的费用的解决方案，究其而言，其好处是收集所有与工作组织相关的信息、雇员的能力和局限性、以及因工作带来的骨骼损伤。One important aspect, actually the processs key purpose, is to communicate information among all those involved, so that adequate and feasible solutions to problems having ergonomics issues can be solved. Employee involvement in the ergonomics process, across several layers of an organization, helps to ensure its success. 其中一个重要的方面，实际上也是这个过程的主要目的，是所有有关各方之间的信息沟通，以至于对人体工程学问题有适当的、可行的解决方案。在人机工程学的过程中，企业各个层次员工的参与有助于确保其成功。When individuals in a company, from the upper echelons of management to the hourly employee, contribute to making changes in work systems and job sites, they become empowered and more responsible for these changes. This cooperation and employee involvement leads to feasible and successful changes that serve to improve the company. A successful ergonomics process needs to be implemented and refined across various types of organizations, so that a wide variety of work-related issues can be incorporated.当一个公司的个人，从管理高层人员到按小时计的雇员，有助于使工作制度和工作场所的安全改变时，他们对这些变得更有能力和责任。这种合作和员工参与有利于提高公司的改革切实可行。一个成功的人体工程学设计过程中需要在各类组织实施和完善，使各种各样的工作有关的问题可以纳入。One such process comprises five fundamental elements:The Workplace;The Ergonomics Committee;Management;Medical Management; The Ergonomics Expert.一个这样的过程包括五个基本要素：工作场所;人类工效学委员会;管理;医疗管理;人类工效学专家。The element from which basic ergonomics issues arise is the Workplace; that is, the area in which the physical work is being performed and where employees become injured due to musculoskeletal stressors. It is the responsibility of the Ergonomics Committee to identify these stressors and provide solutions. The remaining three components (management, medical management, ergonomics expert) provide support for the interaction between the Workplace and the Ergonomics Committee. 基本的人体工程学问题产生的因素是工作场所，即是，在身体紧张工作的部位，因肌肉骨骼的压力而受伤。工效委员会的责任是确定这些压力，并提供解决方案。其余的三个组成部分为（管理，医疗管理，工效学专家）在工作场所和工效学委员会之间的相互作用提供了支持。The companys management Committee is responsible for committing to the process itself; that is, emphasizing the value it places on its employees, and for initially providing monetary and personnel resources to sustain the Committee and the changes it makes within the facility. The Medical Management component deals with the health of the employees, by providing symptom recognition, providing prompt and appropriate treatment, and returning injured .该公司的管理委员会负责提交过程本身，就是强调其关键是雇员，并初步提供货币和人力资源，以维持委员会，并改善内部设施。医疗管理涉及员工的健康，提供症状的识别，提供及时和适当的治疗，并返回受伤部分。UNIT 4hazard identification is process controlled by management. You must assess the outcome of the hazard identification process and determine if immediate action is necessary or if ,in fact,there is an actual hazard involved.When you do not view a reported hazard as an actual hazard, it is critical to the ongoing process to inform the worker that you do not view it as a true hazard and explain why.This will insure the continued cooperation of workers in hazard identification.危险源辨识是靠管理来控制的。你必须对危险辨识过程中得到的结果进行评估，并决定在实际危险存在时是否需要立刻采取措施。当你不把一个已被报告的危险当做一个实际存在的危险时，你必须在工作过程中告诉工人你没把这个被报告的危险当做一个真正的危险，并解释原因。这将确保工人们在危险识别过程中进行持续合作。It is important to remember that a worker may perceive something as a hazard, when in fact it may not be a true hazard; the risk may not match the ranking that the worker placed on it. Also,even if a hazard exists, you need to prioritaze it according to the ones that can be handled quickly,which may take time, or which will cost money above your budget.If the correction will cause a large capital expense and the risk is real but does not exhibit an extreme danger to life and the health, you might need to wait until next years budget cycle.An example of this would be when workers complain of a smell and dust created by a chemical process. If the dust is not above accepted exposure limits and the smell is not overwhelming,then the company may elect to install a new ventilation system, but not until the next year because of budgetary constraints. The use of PPE until hazard can be removed may be required.重要的是要记住，一个工人可能会认为某些东西是危险源，而事实上，它可能不会成为一个真正的危险源，其风险可能不符合工人落实中的排名。此外，即使有危险源存在，则需要根据其优先级（来区分），有的危险源可以迅速处理，有的危险源可能需要一段时间，或有的危险源处理花费的钱超过你的预算。如果修正会造成大的资本支出，并且风险虽然真实存在的，但并没有表现出对生活和健康造成极端危险的，你可能需要等到明年的预算周期。举一个例子，作业人员会抱怨化学过程产生的气味和粉尘。如果灰尘没有超过接触时间的限值，并且气味不是很大，那么该公司可能会选择安装一个新的通风系统，而不是因为预算的限制等到明年（才处理）。在危险源消除之前，PPE（个人防护措施）都是必要的。The expected benefits of hazards identification are a decrease in the incidents of injuries, a decrease in lost workdays and absenteeism, a decrease in workers compensation costs,increased productivity,and better cooperation and communication.The baseline for determining the benefit of the hazard identification can be formulated from existing company data on occupational injuriesillnesses, workers compensation, attendance,profit,and production.危险源辨识的预期效益是减少在事件中的受伤，减少损失工作日及缺勤，减少工人的补偿成本，提高生产力，以及更好的合作与交流。危险源辨识的利益基准线制定可以参考企业现有的关于职业伤亡疾病，工伤赔偿，考勤，利润，和生产的数据。Hazard identification includes those items that can assist you with identifying workplace hazards and determining what corrective action is necessary to control them. These items include jobsite safety inspections, accident investigations, safety and health committees,and project safety inspection programs that involve supervisors and, if you have them, joint labor management committees. Safety inspections should ensure that preventive controls are in place(PPE,guard,Maintenance,engineering controls),that action is taken to quickly address hazards,that technical resources such as OSHA ,state agencies,professional organizations,and consultants are used, and that safety and health rules are enforced.危险源辨识有利于进行工作场所的危险源辨识，确定控制危险源的必要的纠正措施。危险源辨识的项目包括现场安全检查，事故调查，安全和健康委员会，以及项目的安全检查程序，如果条件允许，最好在安全检查时，有监理和劳动管理委员会在场。安全检查要确保预防控制措施落实到个人防护、安全装置、维护、工程控制等方面，确保能快速解决危险源，确保技术资源如OSHA，政府机构，专业组织，以及顾问的使用，确保安全和健康规定的执行。Many workplace have high accidence and severity rates because they are hazardous. Hazards are dangerous situations or conditions that can lead to accidents.The more hazards present,the greater the change that there will be accidents. Unless safety procedures are followed, there will be a direct relationship between the number of hazards in the workplace and the number of accidents that will occur there.由于危险源的存在，许多工作场有较高的事故发生率，事故后果的严重程度也很大。危险源是导致事故发生的不安全情形和状态。危险源越多，发生事故的概率越大。除非采取一定的安全措施，否则工作场所的危险源数量和事故发生的概率有直接的关系。As in most industries,people work together with machines in an environment that causes employees to face hazards,which can lead to injury, disability, or even death. To prevent industrial accidents, the people, machines, and other factors which can cause accidents, including the energies associated with them, must be controlled. This can be done through education and training, good safety engineering, and enforcement.在大多数行业中，人们在工作环境中总会接触到机器，这使作业人员面临着可能导致受伤，残疾，甚至死亡的危险。为了防止工业事故的发生，可以通过安全教育、安全培训，安全工程和强制执行等措施去控制可能会导致事故的人，机，以及其他因素，包括与它们相关联的能量。The core of an effective safety and health program is hazard identification and control. Periodic inspections and procedures for correction and control provide methods of identifying existing or potential hazards in the workplace and eliminating or controlling them. The hazard control system provides a basics for developing safe work procedures and injury and illness prevention training. Hazards occurring or recurring reflect a breakdown in the hazard control system.有效的安全和健康规划的核心是危险源辨识与控制。其方法有定期检查、校正和控制程序，为辨识、消除和控制工作场所现有的和潜在的危险源提供了支持。危险源监控制度为制定安全工作程序，伤害和疾病预防的培训奠定了基础。危险源的出现或再次出现通常说明危险源监控制度已经崩溃。The written safety and health program establishes procedures and responsibilities for the identification and correction of workplace hazards. The following activities can be used to identify and control workplace hazards:hazard reporting system, job site inspections, accident investigation, and expert audits.书面的安全和健康规划，建立工作场所危险源识别和校正的程序和责任。以下活动可以用来识别和控制工作场所的危险源：危险源申报制度，作业现场检查，事故调查和专家审核。After all basic steps of the operation of a piece of equipment or job procedure have been listed, we need to examine each job step to identify hazards associated with each job step. The purpose is to identify and list the possible hazards in each step of the job. Some hazards are more likely to occur than others, and some are more likely to produce serious injuries than others. Consider all reasonable possibilities when identifying hazards.列出设备操作或者作业程序的基本步骤后，我们需要检查每一个工作步骤，以确定与每个作业步骤相关的危险源。其目的是辨识并列出每一步的工作中可能发生的危险。有些危险源比其他的危险源更可能发生，有些危险源是比其他危险源更容易产生严重的伤害。进行危险源辨识时，应考虑所有合理的可能性。Accident Types事故类型Struck-against Type of Accidents 物体打击It is important to remember that a worker may perceive something as a hazard, when in fact it may not be a true hazard; the risk may not match the ranking that the worker placed on it. 重要的是要记住，一个工人可能会认为某些东西是危险源，而事实上，它可能不会成为一个真正的危险源，其风险可能不符合工人落实中的排名。Identification and control of hazards should include periodic site safety inspection programs that involve supervisors and, if you have them, joint labor management committees. 识别和控制危害，应定期进行实地安全检查程序，检查工作要有监理人员，如果有劳动管理委员会，则还可以联合他们进行安全检查工作。To prevent industrial accidents, the people, machines, and other factors which can cause accidents, including the energies associated with them, must be controlled. 为了防止工业事故，可能会导致事故的人，机，以及其他因素，包括与它们相关联的能量，必须加以控制。Study the work environment for what is moving in the vicinity of the worker, what is about to move, or what will move as a result of what the worker does. 研究工作人员附近的工作环境，什么是移动，或什么将随着工作人员的工作移动。Any type of work that involves materials or equipment that may be harmful without forceful contact is a source of contact-with accidents. 一般接触到有害材料或设备的工作，是接触事故的根源。Management is not as close to the actual work being performed as are those performing the work. 管理不像正在执行的工作那么接近其实际情况。This hazard identification technique works well where management is open and genuinely concerned about the safety and health of its workforce. 对于管理开放的，真正关心其员工安全和健康的企业，这种危险源辨别技术是有效的。UNIT 5句子分析：Finding agreement upon criteria for effectiveness, or methods of measurement and evaluation is especially hard where basic disagreement exists upon what an OHSMS is.在有效性的标准，或者测量和评价的方法中达成一致是特别困难的，基本的分歧在于OHSMS（职业健康与安全管理体系）是什么。Systems theory suggests that there should be four general requirements for an OHSMS, although how these requirements are met in practice allows for considerable diversity.系统理论认为，对于职业健康安全管理体系应该有四个一般要求，但在实践中如何满足这些要求，允许有相当大的差异。In contrast, mandatory systems have evolved in a number of European countries where legislation requires adoption of a risk assessment system. 相反，强制系统形成于欧洲国家，这些国家的立法需要采用风险评估系统。This approach stems from methods of regulation found in Europe as well as Australia, where businesses, including smaller ones, are encouraged or required to comply with a less demanding framework than “management systems”. 这种方法源于欧洲以及澳大利亚管理机制，这些国家的交易，包括小的，只需要遵守一个要求比“管理系统”低的框架。First, it is grounded in the literature that discusses alternative approaches to managing OHS and different control strategies, and it reflects the principal debates in that literature. 首先，它是植根于讨论职业健康与安全管理和不同的控制策略的替代办法的文献中，同时，它呈现了文学中专家辩论。The idea that there may be different levels of OHSM has been in Australia where performance levels in some programs are explicitly developmental (the business graduating up an ascending ladder as it demonstrates compliance with the requirements of each successive level).澳大利亚已经采用另一种方式来解释职业健康与安全管理的多层次的定义。在澳大利亚，不同程度的OHSM（职业健康与安全管理）已经在有了明确的发展（由于它表明符合每个成功的要求，业绩呈现上升趋势）。UNIT 6句子分析：Industrial hygiene has been defined as that science or art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community.工业卫生被定义为：“致力于预测、识别、评估和控制环境因素或压力的科学与技术，这些压力产生或来自于工作场所，能够造成疾病、损害人们的幸福安康、或使工人或社区居民的工作效率不高，并使他们感觉到很不舒服”。The industrial hygienist, although basically trained in engineering, physics, chemistry, or biology, has acquired by undergraduate and/or postgraduate study and experience, a knowledge of the effects upon health of chemical and physical agents under various levels of exposure. 基本上在从事有关工程，物理，化学或生物学工作中才需要对作业人员进行工业卫生的培训，但是对于本科生和/或研究生的学习和经验积累中，也要求掌握工业卫生的相关知识，工业卫生是一门主要讲述不同化学和物理因素接触浓度对健康的影响。Noise is a serious hazard when it results in temporary or permanent hearing loss, physical or mental disturbance, any interference with voice communications, or the disruption of a job, rest, relaxation, or sleep. 当噪音导致暂时或
展开阅读全文