西方文化概论课件

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,西方文化概论,Introduction to Western Culture,第一章、文化的概念及中西文化之差异,1、文化的概念、“文化”与“文明”的细微差别,2、文化与自然,3、文化对人类自我持存及演进的作用,4、中西文化的差异,文化的概念,、“文化”与“文明”的细微差别,“文化”对应的英文词是Culture: “最近的词源是拉丁文,cultura, 可追溯的最早词源为拉丁文colere。 Colere 具有一系列义涵：居住（inhabit）、栽种（cultivate）、保护（protect ）、朝拜（honour with worship）。”雷蒙威廉斯（Raymond Williams）:关键词文化与社会的词汇,主要指人的生活形式（form of life）、工具和产品、象征符号性活动、信仰等。文化随不同的历史和社会条件而有所不同。,“文化”与“文明”(,civilization,)的细微差别,Civilization描述一种有序的（ordered）社会生活状态，并指进入社会生活的过程。曾经与教化意义接近，与野蛮状态相对，但现在的用法趋于中性。,其动词形式civilize 来自法语civiliser,较近可追溯到中古拉丁语civilizare（使行事事件变成民事（civil）事件）,其引申义为 “使进入一种社会组织”（to bring within a form of social organization）,最早的词源为拉丁文civilis(市民的、公民的),。,见雷蒙威廉斯（Raymond Williams）:关键词文化与社会的词汇,“在广义上，文化是指人类思想、行为与人类活动产品的总和。在此意义上，文化与生物本性截然不同，并且一直用来区别人类与动物，因此属于哲学人类学的主体。在狭义上包括艺术、体育、娱乐和其他休闲活动。高雅文化包括最有意味和最上乘的视觉艺术作品、音乐、舞蹈与文学，从而与通俗文化形成对照，尽管在某些情况下两者相互影响。文化也指通过教育和培训而获得的个人修养。文化学旨在搞清价值创造所界定的东西。”,文化常与自然相对而言,“Culture stands in contrast to biological nature and has been used to distinguish humans from animal. It belongs to the subject of philosophical anthropology.”,“文化与生物本性截然不同，并且一直用来区别人类与动物，因此属于哲学人类学的主体。”,布宁、余纪元编：西方哲学英汉对照辞典,进一步的思考：区分文化与自然的困难,文化对人类持存和演进的作用,“Understanding culture in the wider sense is one typical concern of historical, anthropological, and sociological studies. The study of culture in the narrow sense is the province of the humanities, whose aim is to interpret and transmit to future generations the system of values in terms of which participants in a form of life find meaning and purpose. In either of these senses, culture can may be thought of as a causal agent that affects the evolutionary process by uniquely human means. For it permits the self-conscious evaluation of human possibilities in the light of a system of values that reflect prevailing ideals about what human life ought to be. Culture is thus and indispensable device for increasing human control over the direction in which our species changes. ” J. Kim,中国文化与西方文化,1、中国文化与西方文化的相遇、碰撞与融,通,2、深入理解西方文化的必要性,3、西方文化的特质（初步讨论）,文化多元与中西文化的差异,Culture may also refer to the system of value and ways of thinking peculiar to a society. This amounts to the “consciousness of a society.”,不同社会、人群之间存在文化差异,中西文化之间的差异初步讨论,中国文化的核心：儒家伦理、道家思想及道教、中国化的佛家。,西方文化的核心：希腊理性传统、犹太-基督教传统,中西文化的相遇、碰撞与融通,明清之际中西文化交流、冲突的重要事件,利玛窦（Matteo Ricci，1552年10月6日1610年5月11日），意大利的耶稣会传教士，学者。明朝万历年间来到中国居住。其原名中文直译为玛提欧利奇，利玛窦是他的中文名字，号西泰，又号清泰、西江。在中国颇受士大夫的敬重，尊称为“泰西儒士”。著交友论等著作，与徐光启合译几何原本。,2、马戛尔尼（Lord Macartney）于1793年在热河觐见乾隆皇帝,林则徐与虎门销烟,4、西学东渐,西式教育体制的建立,西学的引入,第二章、古希腊理性传统溯源,西方文化的两大根源,1、源自古希腊哲学的理性传统,2、犹太-基督教传统,两种思维或话语模式: Logos vs. Mythos,The Greek word LOGOS designates a certain kind of thinking about the world, a kind of logical analysis that places things in the context of reason and explains them with the pure force of thought. Such an intellectual exercise was supposed to lead to wisdom (Sophia), and those who dedicated themselves to Logos were thought of as lovers of wisdom (love =), hence as philosophers.,What was there before philosophy, before Logos?,There was,mythos,-a certain way of thinking that placed the world in the context of its supernatural origins.,Mythos,explained,worldly things by tracing them to exceptional, sometimes sacred, events that caused the world to be as it is now. In the case of the Greeks, this meant tracing them to the dramatic acts of the gods of Mount Olympus. The narratives describing these origins mythsare not only explanatory but also morally exemplary and ritualistically instructive.,古希腊的神话,Among the earliest literary sources are Homers two epic poems, the,Iliad,and the,Odyssey,. Hesiod,（赫西奥德）, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony,（,神谱,）,(,Origin of the Gods,) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans and Giants; as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and etiological myths. Hesiods,Works and Days,（,工作与时日,）, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Four Ages. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.,The mythological history of the world divided into three or four periods:,The myths of origin,or,age of gods (Theogonies, births of gods),: myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.,The age when gods and mortals mingled freely,: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.,The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of,the Trojan War and after,(which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period).,Hero Cult,英雄崇拜,While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. Under the influence of Homer the “hero cult” leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic,（冥府的、黑暗神秘的）,from the Olympian.,The Myth of Pandora and the Iron Age,In the,Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronus, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. Hesiod intercalates the Age (or Race) of Heroes just after the Bronze Age. The final age was the Iron Age, the contemporary period during which the poet lived. The poet regards it as the worst; the presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In,Metamorhoses, Ovid follows Hesiods concept of the four ages.,古希腊的戏剧,A,ncient Greek theatre,埃斯库罗斯Aeschylus,索福克勒斯Sophocles,欧里庇得斯Euripides,阿里斯托芬Aristophanes,They teach morality by telling stories about Agamennon, Oedipus, Antigone, Medea etc.,古希腊哲学的产生,Then, suddenly, philosophy happened-Logos broke upon the scene, at least, according to the traditional account. (There are other accounts, however, accounts that suggest that Western Logos-philosophy and science-is just our version of myth.),Lets suppose that the first philosophers explanation of the flooding of the Nile River during the summer (most rivers tend to dry up in the summer) as being caused by desert winds (desert winds, NOT battles or love affairs among gods) really does constitute novelty. Natural phenomena are explained by other natural phenomena, not by supernatural events in dream time. In that case, Greece truly is the cradle of Western philosophy.,- (D. Palmer,),希腊哲学的兴起与之前的“正义”概念的关系：,The changes of the seasons are plainly brought about by the Encroachments of one pair of opposites, the cold and the wet, on the other pair, the hot and the dry, which in their turn encroach on the other pair. This process was naturally described in terms borrowed from human society; for in early days the regularity and constancy of human life was far more clearly realised than the uniformity of nature. Man rived in a charmed circle of social law and custom, but the world around him at first seemed lawless.,That is why the encroachment of one opposite on another was spoken of as injustice and the due observance of a balance between them as justice. The later word kosmos is based on this notion too. It meant originally the discipline of an army, and next the ordered constitution of a state.,That, however, was not enough. The earliest cosmologists could find no satisfaction in the view of the world as a perpetual contest between opposites. They felt that these must somehow have a common ground, from which they had issued and to which they must return once more. They were in search of something more primary than the opposites, something which persisted through all change, and ceased to exist in one form only to reappear in another. That this was really the spirit in which they entered on their quest is shown by the fact that they spoke of this something as ageless and deathless.,If, as is sometimes held, their real interest had been in the process of growth and becoming, they would hardly have applied epithets so charged with poetical emotion and association to what is alone permanent in a world of change and decay. ( Early Greek Philosophy By John Burnet),前苏格拉底时期的哲学,一古希腊自然哲学的核心问题是确定万物的本原。追问什么是万物的本原或始基？What is the phusis or arche?,米利都学派,古希腊自然哲学的核心问题是确定万物的本原。伊奥尼亚学派的哲学家最先探讨本原问题，泰利斯认为万物的本原是水，阿那克西曼德把万物的本原称为“无定”，阿那克西美尼将气看作万物的本原。,泰勒斯： 水,Thales of Melitus(580 B.C.),“All things are composed of water.”,阿那克西曼德：无限者,Anaximander (610B.C.546 B.C.): the Boundless or the Unlimited,阿那克西美尼：气,Anaximenes (545B.C.): Primordial air transformed through condensation and rarefaction,毕达哥拉斯学派,毕达哥拉斯是生于古希腊萨摩斯岛的哲学家，他在意大利南部建立了带有宗教性的学派。这个学派相信灵魂转世说，强调通过哲学思辨使灵魂得到净化，而哲学思辨的主题是数。他们认为，万物的本原是数。由于世界中存在着和谐的关系，他们断言事物是对数的模仿。数的规定有比例关系、对立关系和类比关系这三类。,Pythagoras (572B.C.500B.C.): Numbers,He discovered the ratio of concord between musical sound and number. From this he deduced a mathematical harmony throughout the universe. The notion of imitation.,毕达哥拉斯与狄奥尼索斯、奥尔弗斯神话,酒神狄奥尼索斯,Dionysus,|,奥尔弗斯(俄耳甫斯)=欧律迪克,Orpheus=Eurydice,|,|,|,毕达哥拉斯,Pythagoras (572B.C.500B.C.):,赫拉克利特Heraclitus (470 B.C.):,everything changes but change itself. You can not step twice into the same river. The basic stuff is living fire. The nature of fire explains both the appearance of stability (the form of flame ) and the fact of change( in the flame, everything changes). Logos governs the change of things.,以弗所的赫拉克利特认为，万物处在永恒的流变之中，一切皆流，无物常驻。他说：“人不能两次踏入同一条河流。” “世界秩序不是任何神或人所创造的，它过去、现在、未来永远是永恒的活火，在一定的分寸上燃烧，在一定的分寸上熄灭。” 尽管万物不断变化，但这种变化总是遵循一定原则，即逻各斯。在逻各斯原则的主宰下，事物总是辩证地生成的。,艾利亚学派(Elea)的巴门尼德,Parmenides( 515B.C.440B.C.):,巴门尼德区分了真理之路和意见之路：意见之路按众人的习惯认识感觉对象，“以茫然的眼睛、轰鸣的耳朵和舌头为准绳”；真理之路则用理智来辩论。他第一个把“是”或“存在”与思想联系起来，强调能是或能存在与能被思想之间的同一关系。指出：“能够被想和能存在（能是）同一个东西”。,It is for it is impossible for it not to be. Nonbeing, you can not recognize it and you can not speak of it. It is the same thing that can be thought and that can be.,其他前苏格拉底哲学家,恩培多克勒：四元素、爱与恨,Empedocles( ?440B.C.): Four elements: fire, air, earth and water( four roots). Love and strife.,阿那克萨哥拉：种子和奴斯,Anaxagoras (500428B.C.): Infinite seeds and nous.,“In all things, there is a portion of everythingFor how could hair come from what is not hair? Or flesh from what is not flesh?”,Nous as a rational mental force with which he explains the order of the universe.,7. 德谟克里特：原子,Democritus (460B.C.370B.C.): atom,雅典时期,希腊文化的顶峰,与苏格拉底同时代的,智者学派（智术师）,The sophists,1、,普罗太哥拉：人是万物的尺度,Protagoras (490422B.C.): Man is the measure of all things.,2、,高尔吉亚：无物存在；即使存在，也不能认识；即 使能认识，也不能说出来。,Gorgias(483375B.C.),There is nothing; if there were anything, no one could know it; if anyone did know it, no one could communicate it.,3、,瑟拉叙马库斯：正义是强者的利益,。,Thrasymachus:,Justice is in the interest of the stronger. Might makes right,苏格拉底,Socrates (469399B.C.):,关注人自身，寻求普遍的道德知识，提,“what is?”,问题。,What is virtue, or justice , or beauty？,发明定义（,Definition）,的方法,。,知识就在你心中，要“认识你自己。”,“Know yourself.”,Dialectics ( Midwife),人总是以自己认为是较好的选项为追求的目标；人不会欲求自己认为是坏的东西。作恶是因为无知。,“The unexamined life is not worth living.”,苏格拉底的使命,(柏拉图申辩篇）,雅典人啊，我敬你们，爱你们。但我将服从神而不是服从你们；只要我还活着，还有力量，我就永远不会放弃哲学，或停止劝告你们，对你们之中每一个我所碰到的人指出真相，以我惯常的口吻说：最优秀的人啊，最强大、最以智慧和力量著称的雅典城公民，你只关心钱财、名声和荣誉，却不注意也不想到智慧、真理及你的灵魂的完善，难道你不觉得羞愧吗?,如果你们有人不服，认为他注意了这些，我就马上不放他走，自己也留下来，向他提问，考察，诘难，如果我发现他实际上并不具有德性，却说他具有，那就要谴责他轻视最重要的事物，却更关心价值不大的东西。对我碰到的每一个人，无论是年轻的还是年老的，公民还是外邦人，我都要这样做，尤其是对公民，因为你们与我的关系更为密切。因为要知道这是神命令我做的，我相信，我对神的服务是城邦所有的最大的好事。我四处游荡，不为其他，只是规劝你们，不论老少，不要首先关心身体，关心财产，而应以注意灵魂的完善为重；我告诉你们，德性并不来自钱财，而钱财及其他对个人和对城邦有好处的东西，却是从德性产生的。,如果我说这些道理就是在败坏青年，那么，这些道理必定是有害的；但如果有人断言我所说的与此不同，那他的话就不是真实的。所以，我要对你们说，雅典人啊，你们可以听信安图斯的话，或者不听信他的话，可以释放我或者不释放我，但必须明白我决不会改变我的行为，哪怕要死许多次。,雅典人啊，别起哄，按我向你们所请求的，别搅乱我的话，听我讲，我相信你们听后会有所收益。,现在我打算对你们说其他一些话，可能你们听了会大声嚷嚷，但请千万别这样做。要知道如果你们杀了我，而我是像我自己所说的这样一个人，那么你们对自己的伤害比对我的伤害还要严重，美雷图斯和安图斯却不可能伤害我；那是不可能的，我相信，好人被坏人伤害，这决不是神所允许的。或许他可以杀我、放逐我或者剥夺我的公民权利，或许他认为这样就大大地伤害了我，其他人也可能这样想，但我认为却不然，我认为他现在所做的即不公正地杀死一个人，只是大大地伤害了自己。,所以，雅典人啊，我的申辩并不像人们所想象的那样是为我自己，而是为了你们，使你们不至于判我的罪而错待了神给予你们的礼物。,因为你们处死了我，就不容易找到另外一个这样的人，用一个可笑的比喻说，这个人之于城邦正如虻对于马一样，城邦虽然伟大而高贵，但由于臃肿，所以懒散迟钝，需要叮它、刺它，才能使其活跃起来。我想，神把我给予这个城邦即具有这样的用意。我四处奔走，整天在处处唤醒、规劝、谴责你们中的任何一人。先生们，你们是不容易找到另一个像我这样的人的；如果你们听从我的劝告，还是免了我的罪吧。但你们仍可能会非常恼火，就像一个人从睡梦中惊醒一样，你们可能会像安图斯所劝告的那样打死我，轻而易举地杀死我；然后你们可以在昏昏沉沉中度过余生。除非神因为关怀你们又派另一只虻来叮你们。,我说我是神给城邦的礼物，你们从下面的事实中可以明白；我已经忽视了自己的一切事务，多少年来一直不顾自己的利益，总是为你们着忙，像一个父亲或兄长一样到你们每一个人这里来，督促你们关注德性；这不像一般人的行为。如果我从此得到了好处或者从这些告诫中获得了报酬，那么我的行为或许是有用意的；可现在你们自己看到，我的控告者无耻地诬告了我其他一切罪状，却也没有无耻到制造证据，证明我向任何人索取或要过报酬的地步。,但我认为，我却有充分的证据，证明我说的是实话，那就是我的贫穷。,柏拉图 Plato（427-347 B.C.）,Theory of Forms ( idea or eidos),Two worlds: the visible (sensible) world and the intelligible world.,Justice ( of person and of state ),Transmigration of soul,柏拉图区分两个世界可感世界和可知世界，可感世界由感官能够把握的事物组成，可知世界由只能被理智把握的对象理念或型相组成。柏拉图认为事物是流变的、不完美的，它们处于存在与不存在之间；理念或型相是永恒的、完美的。对于众多的同类事物而言，理念或型相只有一个，它标志着这类事物的共同本质，同类事物,分有,或,模仿,与这个类同名的共同的理念。在更高的层次上，善是理念的理念，是趋向完美的所有存在者的最终指向，因而为理念所分有。他还认为，对理念的认识是通过灵魂的回忆得到的。,柏拉图将超越的、思想的对象置于感官的对象之上，开启了西方形而上学传统，对后世产生了巨大影响。,Platos philosophy is introduced allegorically in the “ Myth of the Cave ”,In his most important work,The Republic,Plato has Socrates conceive the following vision: Imagine prisoners chained in such a way that they face the back wall of a cave . There they have been for life and can see nothing of themselves or of each other. They see only shadows on the wall of the cave.,These shadows are cast by a fire that burns on a ledge above and behind them. Between the fire and the prisoners, there is a wall-lined path along which people walk carrying vases, statues, and other artifacts on their heads. The prisoners hear the echoes of voices and see the shadows of the artifacts, and they mistake these echoes and shadows for reality.,Plato has Socrates imagine that one prisoner is unchained, turned around, and forced to look at the true source of the shadows. But the fire,pains his eyes. He prefers the pleasant deception of the shadows.,Behind and above the fire is the mouth of the cave, and outside in the bright sunlight ( only a little of which trickles into the cave ) are trees,rivers, mountains, and sky.,Now the former prisoner is forced “ Up the steep and rugged ascent” (Platos allegory of education ) and brought to the sunlit exterior world. But the light blinds him. He must first look at the shadows of the trees (he is used to shadows ), then at the trees and mountains. Then finally he is able to see the sun itself ( the allegory of enlightenment).,Plato suggests that if this enlightened man were to return to the cave, he would appear ridiculous because he would see sunspots everywhere and not be able to penetrate the darkness.,And if he tried to liberate his fellow prisoners, they would be so angry at him for disturbing their illusions that they would set upon him and kill hima clear allusion to the death of Socrates.,The allegory of the liberation of the slave, from darkness, deceit, and untruth and the hard journey into the light and warmth of the truth, has inspired many philosophers and social leaders.,But Plato meant it as more than just a poetic vision. He also gave it a precise technical application, seen in his “Simile of the Line,” also found in The Republic.,On the left side of the line we have an epistemology ( theory of knowledge), on the right side, an ontology ( theory of being). In addition, we have an implicit ethics( moral theory) and aesthetics ( theory of beauty). The totality constitutes Platos metaphysics (general worldview ),For each state of being (right side of the line), there is a corresponding State of awareness( left side ). The lowest state of awareness is that of,“conjecture,” which has as its object “images,” such as shadows and reflection ( or images on the TV screen and video games).,The person in a state of conjecture mistakes an image for reality. This corresponds to the situation of the cave-bound prisoners watching the shadows.,The next level, that of “Belief,” has as its object a particular thingsay, a particular horse or a particular act of justice. Like Conjecture,Belief still does not comprise knowledge but remains in the sphere of Opinion. This is because it is not yet conceptual but is grounded in the uncertainties of sense perception. (The person in a state of belief is like a prisoner who sees the artifact held above the wall inside the cave.),“Opinion” and the objects of which it is aware are all sustained by the Sun. Without the Sun, there could be no horse and no image of a horse nor could we be aware of them in the absence of light.,For Opinion to become Knowledge, the particular object must be,Raised to the level of theory. (This stage, called “Understanding” by Plato, corresponds to the status of the released prisoner looking at the shadows of the trees in the world above the cave.),But according to Plato, theories and definitions are not empirical generalizations dependent on particular cases and abstracted from them.,To the contrary, rather than coming from “below” on the Line, theories are themselves “images” of something higherwhat Plato calls the “Forms.” ( In the same way that shadows and reflections are merely images of particular things, so theories or concepts are the “shadows” of The Forms. ) When one beholds the Forms, one exercises Pure Reason, and one is like the liberated prisoner who gazed upon the trees and mountains in the sunlit upper world.,Platos conception of the Forms is very complicated, but we can simplify it by saying that they are the eternal truths that are the sourece of all Reality. Consider, for example, the concept of beauty. Things in the sensible world are beautiful to the extent that they “imitate” or “participate ” in Beauty. However, these beautiful things will break, grow old, or die. But Beauty itself (the Form) is eternal. It will always be. The same can be said of Truth and Justice.,Furthermore, just as the sensible world and awareness of it are dependent on the Sun, so are the Forms and knowledge of them dependent on the Good, which is a Superform, or the Form of all Forms.,The state of beholding the Good is represented in the myth of the cave by the released prisoner beholding the Sun itself. Platos theory is such that the whole Reality is founded upon the good, which is Realitys source of being. And all knowledge is ultimately knowledge of the Good.,柏拉图认为人的灵魂中有三个部分，即理性、激情、欲望。理性好比驭手，激情和欲望是两匹马，灵魂好像是马车。理性必须联合激情统治欲望，才能使灵魂这辆车顺利行驶。与此平行，国家好似放大的个人，其中有卫国者、武士和生产者。柏拉图认为，社会正义就是每一个人都只做适合他本性的事情，这就是，统治者以智慧治理国家，武士以勇敢保卫国家，包括生产者在内的所有成员以节制协调彼此的行为。反之，三个等级相互干预、彼此替代则是不正义，如天性应该当生产者的人企图跻身于武士行列，军人企图掌管治国大权，这种僭越行为将毁灭国家。,亚里士多德 Aristotle,1.不同意柏拉图两个世界相分离的学说，强调只有一个世界事物的世界。,2.提出“四因说”，即质料因、形式因、目的因、动力因来解释事物的运动和变化。,3.潜能和现实概念的提出,4.范畴论。,5.德性论。,Aristotle contradicted this view, asserting that there is only ONE world, and that we are right smack in the,middle of it. In criticizing Plato, Aristotle asked: If Forms are essences of things, how can they exist separated from things? If they are the cause of things, how can they exist in a different world? And a most telling criticism has to do wit the problem of CHANGE and MOTION, which the early Greeks had tried to solve.,The thought that either stability was an illusion or that motion was an illusion. Plato had tried to resolve the dilemma by acknowledging the insig