chapter 4 Syntax英语专业语言学

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Chapter Four,Syntax,70,Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.,Simply speaking, it is the study of the formation of sentences,.,There are different approaches to syntax in the linguistic field:,The traditional approach,the structural approach,the generative grammar are discussed here,The traditional approach,The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of the parts of speech and grammatical functions of words, and other categories such as number, gender, case, tense, aspect, voice, concord and government.,Grammatical categories,语法范畴,72,Related groups of words (parts of speech,词性,) in traditional grammar. including Case, Gender, Number, Person, Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice, etc.,Concepts indicated by “category symbols,范畴符号,”,S, NP, V, etc. in TG Grammar.,The Traditional Approach,1 Number,2 Gender,3 Case,4 Tense,5 Aspect,6 Agreement (Concord),7 Government,Number (add),Singular,Plural,Dual,Singular concord:either, neither,Plural concord: both,Gender (add),Masculine,Feminine,Neuter,Covert gender in English,Male,Female,Dual,Case,格,Nominative,主格,Subject,Accusative,宾格,Direct object,Dative,与格,Indirect object,Agreement,一致 （,add),Correspondence between two or more sentence elements in respect to their grammatical categories,Within noun phrases, articles, and adjectives adopting the form required to reflect the gender and number of the noun that they accompany.,Concord: agreement of,nominals,and verbs,Government,管辖 （,add),Specific property of verbs, adjectives, prepositions, or nouns that determines the form (especially case) of dependent elements.,Pronouns in English,Sentence types,Binary division in terms of structure:,Simple,Non-simple,Complex,Compound,Extension of sentence,Conjoining (Coordination),并列句,Embedding (Subordination),嵌入句,Recursiveness,(Layers of subordination),递归句 （,cf. p.82),The structural approach,Started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, at the beginning of the 20th century.,.,The structural approach,All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.,The Structural Approach,Syntagmatic,(Horizontal, Chain) relation (Structure),(,组合关系,),Paradigmatic (Vertical, Choice) relation (System),(,聚合关系,),Hierarchical structure,（,Relations of inclusion and domination,分级结构）,Endocentric construction,向心结构,Subordinate,（从属结构）,Coordinate,（并列结构）,Exocentric construction,(,外向结构、离心结构）,Syntagmatic,vs. Paradigmatic Relations,In Saussures view, language is a system of signs (i.e. words), and the value of each individual sign must be explained from its relations to others, or its position in the system. The two principle types of relations which Saussure identified are,syntagmatic,and paradigmatic relations,.,Syntagmatic,vs. Paradigmatic Relations 2,The,syntagmatic,relation is the relation between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.,The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent,.,Endocentric Construction,向心结构,The group is syntactically equivalent to one of the words it contains. (one of the words in the group can stand in place of the whole group),The word that can stand for the whole group is the head, and the other words are its optional modifiers.,Typically noun and adjective phrases,Endocentric Construction,Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:,subordinate constructions,（从属结构）,.,Coordinate constructions,（并列结构）,.,Endocentric constructions,Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, are subordinate constructions, for example,pretty girls,.,Coordinate constructions are those in which there are more than one head, e.g.,boys and girls, in which the two content constituents,boys,and,girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.,Exocentric Construction,Exocentric construction (,外向结构、离心结构）：,The group is not syntactically equivalent to one of the words it contains. (There is no head.),Most constructions are exocentric.,Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.,IC analysis,直接成分分析法,1,Immediate constituent analysis,直接成分分析法,a descriptive approach,The father of American structuralism Leonard Bloomfield.,Theoretical base: a sentence not only has a linear structure, but a hierarchical structure made up of layers of word groups.,IC Analysis 2 p.75,A sentence is viewed as made up by two-part constructions on a series of levels or layers.,The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones.,IC Analysis 3,Immediate Constituents Analysis,is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive,binary cuttings,二分法,until the level of single words is reached.,IC Analysis 4,The word groups in a sentence are called its,constituents,成分,.,Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its,immediate constituents (ICs),.,直接成分,The final cuts are known as the,ultimate constituents,(,UCs,),最终成分,.,IC Analysis,：,Vertical bars,（,add),1.,The new product | has passed tests with flying colours,.,2.,The,|,new product,|,has passed tests,|,with flying colours,.,3.,The,|,new,|,product,|,has passed,|,tests,|,with,|,flying,colours,.,4.,The,|,new,|,product,|,has,|,passed,|,tests,|,with,|,flying,| colours.,IC Analysis,：,brackets p.76,1.,The new product has passed tests with flying colours,.,2. ,The new product, ,has passed tests with flying colours,.,3. ,The, ,new product, ,has passed tests, ,with flying,colours,.,4. ,The, ,new, ,product, ,has passed, ,tests, ,with, ,flying colours,.,5. ,The, ,new, ,product, ,has, ,passed, ,tests, ,with, ,flying, ,colours,.,IC Analysis,：,A Tree Diagram,The new product has passed tests with flying colours.,Node,节点,Problems with IC-analysis 6 p.83,I have to give it up.,Are you here?,There are men and women.,John is easy to please. vs. John is eager to please.,give it up,give,up,it,Originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky,（,1928-,）, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar.,The generative approach,TG Grammar,TG Grammar has seen several stages of development, involving putting forward, revising, and canceling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models,.,TG Grammar,I. Standard theory,标准理论时期,:,A. Classical theory (1957-1965):,Syntactic Structure ,句法结构,B. Standard theory (1965-1970):,Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,句法理论的若干问题,C.Revised,extended standard theory,（,1970-1979,）：,TG Grammar,II. Principles and parameters,原则和参数方法时期,A. The theory of government and binding (1979-1993),：,Lectures on Government and Binding,管辖和约束论集,B. Minimalist program,（,1993- present),The Minimalist Program,(1995),最简方案,TG grammar 83-87,Innateness hypothesis,天赋论 （,269-270,）,Competence and performance,（,16-17,）,Generative,Transformation,Deep structure and surface structure,（,85,）,Standard Theory,（,85,）,Language Acquisition Device (LAD),语言习得机制,Chomsky believes that a child is born with LAD, which probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-making device,（,语言的假设,linguistic universal(,语言普遍性,) , and an evaluation procedure(,评价,).,Innateness Hypothesis RDUILO,Chomsky believe that the language-acquiring ability of the human mind is an innate, genetically carried attribute that is possessed by no other creature.,The intuitive rules for language we learn are predominantly syntactic.,Language Acquisition Device,Chomskys hypothesis is based on :,the failure in training the chimps;,the success in spite of the limited input of poor quality;,the same stages of linguistic development;,the acquisition of a set of rules rather than individual sentences.,Syntactic rules,The syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for:,The grammaticality of sentences,Word order,Structural ambiguity,Grammatical relations,Whether different structures have differing meanings,The creative aspect of Language.,Phrase structure tree 1,A tree diagram with syntactic category information provided is called a phrase structure tree/constituent structure tree.,This tree shows that a Sentence is both a linear string of words and a hierarchical structure with phrases nested in phrases.,Phrase structure tree 2,Three aspects of speakers syntactic knowledge of sentence structure are disclosed in phase structure trees.,The linear order of the words in the Sentence.,The grouping of words into particular syntactic categories.,The hierarchical structure of the syntactic categories.,Generative,Providing the rules to generate,all and only,the grammatical sentences, to,predict,what could be the,possible,sentences of the language.,The notion of generation must be interpreted as the generating process of a mathematical formula containing variables.,Transformation,To show how basic sentences can be transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences.,Developed and given a somewhat different theoretical basis by Chomsky, and is a device to transform a deep structure into a surface structure.,Transformational rules,Surface structure: The structures of a sentence that we actually speak to which the rules of phonology are applied.,John is eager to please.,John is easy to please.,Deep structure: it is essential to get below the surface realizations to the underlying principles.,Transformational rules,Much syntactic knowledge not revealed by phrase structure rules(,短语结构规则,),is accounted for by transformations, which alter phrase structure trees by moving, adding, or deleting elements.,Transformations act on structures, irrespective of the words that they contain. They are structure dependent.,Standard Theory (ST) 86,Base,基础,:,Phrase structure-rule (Category rule,范畴规则,),Lexicon,subcategorization,rule,次范畴化,规则,Selectional,restriction,Deep structure and Surface Structure,Semantic component,Meaning is decided by Deep Structure.,The ST Model,selectional,restriction,lexical insertion,基,础,部,分,改写规则,词典,深层结构,语义部分,语义解释,转换,表层结构,音位规则,语音解释,Base,Phrase structure rules:,S NP Aux VP NP ,Det,N NP N ,Subcategorization,rules:,N +N,Common + Common ,Count ,Lexicon:,Sincerity: +N, -Count, +Abstract,Boy: +N, +Count, +Common, +Animate, +Human,PS rules 79-80,S,NP VP,NP,(D) (AP) N,PP, AP, S,VP,(Aux) V,NP, PP, S,AP,(Deg) A PP, S,PP,P,NP, S,PS rules p.80,S stands for Sentence,NP for Noun Phrase,VP for Verb Phrase,D for Determiner,Aux for Auxiliary (verb),N for Noun, and V for Verb stem.,The arrow can be interpreted as an instruction to rewrite,PS rules,Rule: NP (D) N (S),The rule rewrites the symbol NP as the string of symbols “D N S”, defining Determiner + Noun + Sentence to be a construction of the type NP.,Constructions of the type NP may have, as their immediate constituents, constructions of the type Determiner, Noun and Sentence, combined in that order.,S,NP Aux VP,D N T PERF V NP,D N,The boy pr have-n see the,thief,Syntactic features of words,Category features (word classes),Subcategory features,Intransitive,Transitive,*Beautiful transported his wife fortune.,Semantic features of words,Selectional,restriction,Semantic requirements in collocation,Semantic features,Human,Animate,Concrete,Eg,. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.,Surface structure and Deep structure,Deep Structure,of the sentence is a structured string of words.,It contains the abstract syntactic structure from the PS rules and the words inserted from the lexicon.,Surface structure and Deep structure,Surface Structure,is the final syntactic and phonological representation of the sentence, the sentence uttered by the speaker.,T-rules are to be applied between them and certain constituents of the sentence can be moved, deleted and added.,The Three Components,Syntactic component,Semantic component,Phonological component,Deep Structures of Sentences,Affix transformation:,past,go,go,past,pres,be,+,ing,eat,be,pres #,eat,ing,#,past,have,+ en shoot,have,past #,shoot en,pres,have,+,en be,+,ing,sell,have,pres #,be en,#,sell,ing,#,past,have,+,en be,+,en search,have,past #,be en,#,search en,#,past,may go,may,past #,go,past,can be,+,ing,die,can,past #,be die,ing,#,The Deep Structures,Deep structure surface structure,Neg,he,pres,can go,He cant go,.,Q,he,pres,have,+,en go,Has he gone,?,Tag,he,pres,be,+,ing,go,He is going,isnt he,?,Emphasis,he,past,sleep,He did sleep,.,Q,he,pres,be,+,ing,go,someplace,Where is he going,?,Q SOMEONE past,leave,Who left,?,SOMEONE past,be,+,en catch Mary,Mary was caught,.,John,1,past,hurt,John,1,John hurt himself,.,Imp,you,pres,will,+,get up,Get up,.,Summary,Transformational rules account for S whose surface structures are different, but have the same meaning. They do this by deriving multiple surface structures from a single deep structure.,summary,To capture the knowledge speakers have about the syntax of their language, the grammar requires, at a minimum,phrase,structure rules,a lexicon,richly endowed with speakers knowledge about individual words, and a set of,transformational rules,describing the structure-dependent patterning that occurs throughout the language.,Summary,Speakers have structures that can be represented by phrase structure trees containing syntactic categories.,Syntactic categories are either phrasal categories , such as NP and VP, which can be decomposed into other syntactic categories or lexical categories.,Summary,Phrase structure rules characterize the basic phrase structure trees of the language, the deep structures.,The Lexicon represents the K speakers have about the vocabulary of their L, including the syntactic category of words and what elements may co-occur together, expressed as,subcategorization,.,Questions,Draw,two labelled tree diagrams,for each of the following structurally ambiguous sentences:,The boy saw the girl with a telescope.,He is an American history teacher.,The parents of the bride and groom were waiting.,