Chapter 11 Language__ Acquisition

单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,Company Logo,*,/56,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,Click to edit Master title style,Click to edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,Sixth level,Seventh level,Eighth level,Ninth level,*,*,/,15,Chapter 11 Language Acquisition,Introduction to Linguistics,Instructor:,LIN,Wenzhi,School of Foreign Languages, Southwest University,Chapter 11 Language Acquisition,Wen-Zhi,Lin,Southwest University,Beibei, Chongqing,P.R.China,Main Contents,1. First Language Acquisition,3. Instructed Second Language Acquisition,2. Second Language Acquisition,9/10/2024,3,Part 1 First Language Acquisition,Definition of FLA,1,Acquisition vs. Learning,2,Approaches to FLA,3,Stages of FLA,4,9/10/2024,4,1. First language acquisition,What is first language acquisition?,First language acquisition,(L1 acquisition) refers to the process whereby children become speakers of their native language (NL) or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term,language learning,.,9/10/2024,5,What is the difference between acquisition and learning?,The term,acquisition, when used of language, refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. The term,learning, in contrast, applies to the process of consciously accumulating knowledge of a language, particularly through formal instruction.,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,6,What are the major approaches to first language acquisition?,Behaviourism,(most influential before the 1960s): Language learning is like any other form of human behavior, being a process of habit-formation characterized by stimulus-response and imitation-reinforcement relationship.,Innateness approach,(from the 1960s onwards): The ability to acquire a human language is born and biologically built in the human brain, linked in some manner to physiological maturation, with some degree of weakening after the time of puberty (e.g., along with the process of lateralization*).,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,7,Interaction hypothesis,(also called a “weak” innate hypothesis): Children are born not with specific knowledge of grammatical rules but with a potentiality for organizing experiences in certain ways, deciding certain kinds of relationship and comprehending symbols, which relies on interaction with the environment to function.,So, which approach do you prefer and why?,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,8,What are the typical stages of first language acquisition?,Pre-language stage,Involuntary crying:,when feeling hungry or uncomfortable;,Cooing and gurgling:,showing satisfaction or happiness, and suggesting some awareness of sounds and their potential significance;,Babbling:,more language-like sounds, at about six months of age, often consisting of consonant-vowel sequences with no meaning attached.,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,9,One-word or holophrastic stage,Between 12 and 18 months, children begin to produce a variety of recognizable single-unit utterances for everyday objects such as “milk”, “cookie”, “cat” and “cup”.,Two-word stage,The two-word stage can begin around 18 to 20 months when a variety of two-word combinations such as,baby,chair,mommy eat,cat bad,occur. An adults interpretation of such combinations is very much tied to the context. The adult around may behave as if communication is taking place and gives the baby a feedback which may reassure him that his utterance works, treating the baby as a conversational partner.,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,10,Telegraphic speech,Between two and three years old, the child begins producing multiple-word utterances, which are telegraphic, leaving out words such as articles, auxiliary verbs and prepositions.,By the age of two and a half, the childs vocabulary is expanding rapidly and his pronunciation has come closer to the form of adult language. The child is capable of carrying on a conversation. Utterances involving clause coordination and later subordination appear.,By the age of five, the child reaches the adult grammar stage, being a competent speaker already.,1. First language acquisition,9/10/2024,11,Part 2 Second Language Acquisition,Definition of SLA,1,Research Questions,2,Major Theories of SLA,3,Factors Affecting SLA,4,Learner Differences,5,9/10/2024,12,What is second language acquisition?,Second,language acquisition,(L2 acquisition, SLA) generally refers to the development of ability in any other language after one has acquired his or her first language.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,13,A distinction is sometimes made between,second language acquisition,and,foreign language learning,. Second language acquisition takes place in a context where the target language functions as a recognized way of communication, while foreign language learning takes place in a context where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learnt in educational settings.,Nevertheless, second language acquisition is generally used as a cover term for both second language acquisition and foreign language learning.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,14,What questions are addressed in second acquisition research?,Two broad questions are addressed: what is acquired in the process of picking up a second language and how the process develops.,Answers to them inevitably cover the nature and properties of the developing language system in the mind of the L2 learner, the factors that might affect second language acquisition, and the role of instruction in the process as well.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,15,What have been the major theoretical concerns in the development of second language acquisition research?,From the 1940s to 1960s, researchers typically conducted,Contrastive Analysis,(CA), systematically comparing native languages (,NLs,) and target languages (,TLs,) in order to identify similarities and differences.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,16,This was motivated by the,Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis,that where two languages are similar, positive transfer, or facilitation, would occur, and where they are different, negative transfer, or interference, would result.,It was believed that with CA, L2 features difficult or easy for learning could be identified and predicted so as to improve the efficiency of foreign language teaching. Nevertheless, CA was more successful in phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,17,Error Analysis,(EA),refers to the analysis on errors made by second and foreign language learners. It developed as a branch of applied linguistics and as an alternative to,Contrastive Analysis,in the late 1960s, and achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s.,It was motivated by the assumption that learners errors may not be indications of imperfect learning; instead, errors are significant in that they may open a window into the learners mind, revealing processes of creative learning.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,18,Errors were classified into different types so as to account for them, and a basic distinction was drawn between,intralingual,errors,(resulting from faulty learning of the TL) and,interlingual,errors,(resulting from cross-linguistic influence).,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,19,The,Interlanguage,(IL),Theory,was proposed on the observation that learner language involves errors related to neither L1 nor L2 and the assumption that L2 learners create a language system in the mind, known as an,interlanguage,(IL), which is inherently variable, with rules of its own.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,20,The key questions addressed by the,Interlanguage,Theory,are:,(1) What processes are responsible for,interlanguage,construction?,(2) What is the nature of,interlanguage,? and,(3) What explanation is there for the fact that most L2 learners do not achieve full target language competence?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,21,Central to the concept of,interlanguage,is the concept of,fossilization, which means that learners become permanently established in an,interlanguage,in a form, deviant from the TL norm, that continues to appear in performance regardless of further exposure to the TL.,What the nature of,interlanguage,is, how fossilization occurs, and what count as the appropriate conditions for more successful IL development are some important questions for second language acquisition studies.,So, which approach do you prefer and why?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,22,What are the major factors that affect second language acquisition?,The major factors that affect second language acquisition may include learner-external factors (e.g.,sociocultural,context, input, interaction, etc.), learner-internal factors (e.g., UG, L1 transfer, learning process, etc.), and learner differences.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,23,What are the generally accepted learner differences?,Language aptitude,People are believed to differ in the extent to which they possess a natural ability for learning an L2, called language aptitude, which, assumingly, is partially related to general intelligence and partially distinct.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,24,Language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities. According to Carrolls Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), language aptitude may be composed of,phonemic coding ability,:,the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign language so that they can be remembered later; This ability is also regarded as related to the ability to handle sound-symbol relationships, e.g., “,th,”;,grammatical sensitivity:,the ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words in sentences, e.g., the subject and object of a sentence;,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,25,inductive language learning ability,:,the ability to identify patterns of correspondence and relations between form and meaning, e.g., “to”;,rote learning ability,: the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli.,There is strong evidence that language aptitude is an important predictor of second language acquisition achievement.,So, do you rank yourself high or low in language aptitude?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,26,Cognitive style,A,cognitive style,refers to an individuals preferred way of mentally processing (perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling, etc.) information. Cognitive styles often affect learners individual preferences or needs for different learning conditions, which are called learning styles.,One dimension of cognitive style centers on the difference between,field dependence,and,field independence,in language learning.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,27,Field-independent learners,are analytical, able to separate self, or objects viewed, from the surrounding context, tending to perceive elements independently of a context or field and focus on details.,They tend to analyze L2 information that they are given and determine whether it is correct or not. They are predicted to develop a broader and deeper understanding of the L2 structure.,They have a strong sense of personal identity and might be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2,.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,28,Field-dependent learners,are more relational, operating holistically and having trouble separating self, or objects, from the surrounding field, tending to perceive the whole field or situation and focus on general meaning.,They tend to accept L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher, with little personal analysis.,They are very reliant on other peoples judgment of them and positive feedback in L2 learning. They would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L2.,Are you a field dependent or field independent second language learner, then?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,29,Another dimension of cognitive style concerns the difference in,reflectivity,(or,impulsivity,).,Reflective,learners are usually more systematic and cautious in learning L2, tending to make slower and more calculated decisions.,Impulsive,learners are usually more intuitive and more willing to take risks in learning L2, tending to make quick or gambling guesses at an answer to a problem.,It is predicted that a reflective L2 learner may perform better in exams, but impulsive L2 learners may have more chance to develop their oral ability.,Are you a reflective or impulsive L2 learner?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,30,Personality traits,Personality traits are believed to be important predictors of success in second language learning. One personality trait defines one in terms of,extroversion/introversion,; that is, individuals are defined as more or less extroverted.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,31,Extroverts,are generally more sociable and gregarious. They are more actively involved with the L2 and more willing to use it than,introverts,. Their overall proficiency may develop more quickly and to a higher level.,In contrast,introverted, bookish, and reserved L2 learners might be willing to spend more time studying and practicing the forms of the language, and thus develop a fuller and more accurate understanding of the language structure than,extroverts,.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,32,Overall, the relationship between language proficiency and,extroversion/introversion,seems to be true when assessing proficiency at using the language, but not when assessing knowledge of the language.,Anyway, are you more extroverted or more introverted?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,33,Learning strategies,Language aptitude, cognitive style, and personality traits are the general factors that affect L2 learning. Their influence, possibly, manifests itself in a learners types of,learning strategies,and frequencies of using them.,Language learning strategies,are behaviors or thoughts which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable, which are typically problem-oriented.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,34,Three major types of learning strategies have been identified:,cognitive,metacognitive, and,social,/,affective strategies,.,Cognitive strategies,refer to the steps or operations used in problem-solving that need direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials. They have an operative or cognitive-processing function.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,35,Typical strategies that have been discussed in the,cognitive category,for listening and reading comprehension are:,Rehearsal, or repeating the names of items or objects that have been heard;,Organization, or grouping and classifying words, terminology, or concepts according to their semantic or syntactic attributes;,Inferencing, or using information in oral text to guess meanings of new linguistic items, predict outcomes, or complete missing parts;,Summarizing, or intermittently synthesizing what one has heard to ensure the information has been retained;,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,36,Deduction, or applying rules to understand language;,Imagery, or using visual images to understand and remember new verbal information;,Transfer, or using known linguistic information to facilitate a new learning task;,Elaborationlinking ideas contained in new information or integrating new ideas with known information.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,37,Metacognitive,strategies,make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and regulate language learning. They have an executive function. They are applicable to a variety of learning tasks.,Among the processes that would be included as,metacognitive,strategies,for receptive or productive language tasks are:,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,38,Selective attention for special aspects of a learning task, as in planning to listen for key words or phrases;,Planning the organization of either written or spoken discourse;,Monitoring or reviewing attention to a task, monitoring comprehension for information that should be remembered, or monitoring production while it is occurring;,Evaluating or checking comprehension after completion of a receptive language activity, or evaluating language production after it has taken place.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,39,Social/affective strategies,concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other learners and native speakers. The strategies that would be useful in listening comprehension are:,Cooperation, or work with one or more peers to solve a problem, pool information, check notes, or get feedback on a learning activity;,Questioning for clarification, or asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrase, explanation and/or examples;,Self-talk, or using mental control to assure oneself that a learning activity will be successful or to reduce anxiety about a task.,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,40,Various studies have been conducted to find what strategies are important for L2 acquisition. Some investigated how “good language learners” try to learn. If strategies crucial for learning can be identified, it may prove possible to train students to use them.,Do you often use any strategies to solve your problems in L2 learning? What are they?,2. Second language acquisition,9/10/2024,41,Part 3 Instructed SLA: Contents,Why Study Instruction?,1,Form-focused Instruction,2,Learner-instruction Matching,3,Strategies Training,4,9/10/2024,42,Why should we study instructed second language acquisition?,There is no doubt that second language acquisition research is focused on the nature and process of acquiring a language rather than aimed at pedagogical concerns.,However, efforts of finding the factors that may affect second language acquisition would naturally touch upon the role of teachers instruction in learners acquisition. In other words, instruction is examined only when its influence upon acquisition becomes our concern.,3. Instructed second language acquisition,9/10/2024,43,Form-focused instruction,Traditionally, language pedagogy has emphasized the teaching of grammar to students. More recently, however, language pedagogy has emphasized the need to provide learners with real communicative experiences.,Communicative language teaching,is based on the assumption that learners do not need to be taught grammar before they can communicate but will acquire it naturally as part of the learning process.,Nevertheless,form-focused instruction,draws attention to the forms and structures of a language within the context of communicative interaction.,3. Instructed second language acquisition,9/10/2024,44,Form-focused instruction,refers to L2 instruction meeting the need for meaning-focused activity into which an attention to form is embedded.,It overtly draws students attention to the forms and structures of a language as they arise incidentally in lessons whose over-riding focus is on meaning or communication.,3. Instructed second language acquisition,9/10/2024,45,Studies have shown that form-focused instruction may lead to enhanced accuracy, help learners progress through developmental stages more rapidly, and destabilize,interlanguage,fossilization.,Thus, second language teachers should provide guided, form-focused instruction and corrective feedback in certain circumstances, e.g., with persistent errors, errors for the majority of learners, tricky language features and rules, etc.,3. Instructed second language acquisition,9/10/2024,46,However, less is currently known about which approach is the best for form-focused instruction, for different learners may have different need