英语语法大学必修.doc

ContentsOn Grammar1Lecture 1 Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy1Lecture 2 Basic Clause Types1Lecture 3 Subjectverb Concord1Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase11. Gender12. Number13. Unit Nouns14. Genitives1Lecture 5 Determiners11. Collocations of Determiners12. Usage of Some Determiners13. Articles1Lecture 6 Pronouns11. Pronoun Concord12. Case13. Reflexive Pronouns14. Generic Use of Personal Pronouns1Lecture 7 Verb and Verb Phrase11. Classification of Verbs12. A Survey of Tense, Aspect, Voice and Mood1Lecture 8 Tense and Aspect1Lecture 9 Future Time1Lecture 10 Voice1Lecture 11 Mood1Lecture 12 Modal Auxiliaries1Lecture 13 Non-finite Verb11. Infinitive12. ing Participle13. ed Participle14. Non-finite Clause15. Dangling Participle16. Absolute Construction1Lecture 14 Adjective and Adjective Phrase1Lecture 15 Adverb and Adverb Phrase1Lecture 16 Comparison and Comparative Constructions1Lecture 17 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase1Lecture 18 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation11. Statements1Lecture 19 Relative Clause1Lecture 20 Conditional Sentence1Lecture 21 Inversion1Bibliography1On Grammar关于语法课一、 外语语法教学的意义1. 教育的第一功能是教授已有的知识，运用到外语教学上，就是向学生传授语法知识，使其在实际的语言阅读和理解过程中省去大量的时间；2. 教育的第二功能是训练学习者的社会能力，语言教学就意味着教会他们如何正确地使用适当的语言形式来完成一些社会任务，如问路、告别、请求等；3. 教育的第三个功能是培养学习者个人的素质和能力。体现在语言教学上，就是遵循个人语言能力的自然发展过程，尽量提供适当的自然环境，使学生的语言习惯和能力在自然过程中形成。二、 外语语法学习的目的：外语语法学习的目的不是为了熟记外语语法的条条框框，而是为了更好地进行听、说、读、写，学习外语语法是为培养外语运用能力而服务的，是为了帮助学习者利用语言知识，提高外语的听、说、读、写能力。外语语法起的只是工具作用。三、 外语语法教学的目的：外语语法教学的目的就是为了让学生掌握必要的语法规则，为学生言语能力的提高打下基础，为培养听、说、读、写能力服务。四、 学习语法的方法和原则1. 善于自己发现错误。2. 一定要背会、记熟语法规则。3. 避免重复错误，尽量弄明白为什么一直犯同类错误。4. 多实践，勤复习。5. 学语法要耐心，下苦功，但不可操之过急。参考阅读：英语语法是英语专业的一门必修课程。语法是语言的组织规律，它是关于词的形态变化和用词造句的规则。学生在综合英语课中虽然已学过一些英语语法的基础知识，但缺乏系统性和完整性，本课程的目的就是帮助学生掌握比较系统和完整的传统英语语法知识，并运用语法规律去指导语言实践，提高运用英语的交际能力，本课程除了介绍英语语法的基本结构规律外，还强调理论联系实际。配合足够的口笔头练习，加强语言的基本训练。 基本要求是：要学求生对传统英语语法的基本结构规律有一个比较完整明确的概念，把已学过的语言知识系统化。 要求学生能较熟练地运用传统英语语法的基本规则去分析讲解各种语法现象，以便在今后的实践中提高自己的业务水平与教学能力。 学习英语语法的目的：要回答这个问题，先简要讨论一下要不要学习英语语法的问题。这个问题，答案也许是很清楚的。主张英语语法可以不学的人往往这样说：我们中国人，如果智力正常，从小就会说汉语，能遣词造句，没见过哪个小孩先学语法再学话的。再说，英语讲得多了，有了语感，语法还不是水到渠成的事。这种实践出真知的说法，绝对是正确的。但我仍主张学一点英语语法。本人没受过很好的教育，更不懂高深的语言学理论，但一直有这样的看法：在我们中国，百年都没有营造出正常情况下用正式英语交际的大氛围和小氛围，所以难以在投入产出比符合经济效益的前提下培养出一定的英语语感。语法，实际上就是给你语言整体上的语感（规则），既给你能解释语言现象的鱼，又教你如何用语感去钓语言深层的鱼。何乐而不为呢？说到这，学习英语语法的目的也就清清楚楚了：弥补氛围难以在短期内培养一定语感的缺憾，比较经济地获得英语整体的语感。当然，也为通过我们这个考试大国的众多英语测试提供初级“抱佛脚”的方法。学习英语语法的范围：学习英语语法的范围，指的是学习英语语法需掌握的内容程度。既然我们学习英语语法的目的那么简单实际，到啥山唱啥歌吧。范围不必很大，也就是说面不宜太宽，点也不宜研究太深，毕竟需要用英语说之乎者也的人不多。另外，我认为通过学习英语语法，求得对英语的整体感觉非常重要。有了整体感，可以揭开英语的神秘面纱，知道了对手的模样，就知己知彼了；有了整体感，对语言就有了“君临天下”之气，加之不懈的积累，从掌握语法的必然王国，进而出入语言的自由王国。出于这种考虑，这个讲义编得非常简单，有些方面甚至还不如高中所学的内容，但实用语法的基本脉络比较清晰。学习英语语法的方法：英语语法书很多，学习英语语法的方法也不少。学好一样东西，本没有绝对好的方法。号称包治百病的医生，要么是庸医，要么是骗子。事实上，每个人可以根据自己的实际情况，在不断尝试中摸索出适合自己的方法。依我这个半路出家的人看来，不管用什么方法学英语语法，进而学英语语言，一是要有整体语感，要学会归纳和演绎，由此及彼；三是要借助对母语的了解，琢磨汉语和英语的异同之处，转而进行两种语言之间的由此及彼。比如：学了wish的宾语可以用不定式，可以推理出名词wish的定语、表语也有可能是不定式。是还是不是？一查词典便知。汉语的“讨论”一词用动词短语作宾语，中间一般要加个wh-词，如能说“讨论如何学习英语”，不能说“讨论学习英语”。英语里的discuss用不定式作宾语是否也是如此呢？英语中类似的词是否是同样情况呢？花点时间就解决问题。对语言的分析能力，实际上以对语言的整体语感为基础的，更是以对语言完整的整体语感为目的的。说到底，语言不就是规律和例外的组合吗？！两三年积累下来，你就是语法高手。Lecture 1 Introduction: Grammatical HierarchyI. Grammar1. Grammar is the structural system of a language.2. Grammar is the pivot combining the phonetic system (or the literal system in writing) and the semantic system.Semantic system grammar phonetic / literal system3. Grammatical Hierarchy:1) Morpheme: the lowest rank2) Word3) Phrase4) Clause5) Sentence: the highest rankEach rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank.II. MorphemesThe morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speechMorphemeFree MorphemeBound MorphemeAffixInflectional AffixDerivational AffixPrefixSuffix:1. Free morphemes1) A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.e.g boy, girl, desk, chair, kind, cruel, give, take2) Function:a. simple words: boy, girl, desk, chair, kind, cruel, give, takeb. roots: kindness, unkind, friendship, friendlessc. compound words: bookmark bookshop bookworm girlfriend2. Bound morphemes1) A bound morpheme itself doesnt have a complete meaning and cannot stand by itself. It must be attached to some other form.2) Function: affixesa. Inflectional affixes: word endings that express only grammatical informationa) pl.: -s / -esb) the genitive: -sc) third person singular: -s /-esd) past time: -ede) participle: -ed /-ingf) comparison: er /-estb. Derivational affixes: prefix and suffixa) Prefix: attached before a rooti. The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented, that is, it adds new meaning to a root. ii. Though the vast majority of prefixes do not change the original word class, there are prefixes that are class-changing:a-: forms adjectives from nouns or verbs ablaze, asleep, awashbe-: forms verbs from adjectives or nouns becalm, befriendem- /en-: forms verbs from adjectives or nouns embitter, enlarge,b) Suffix: attached after a basei. basically class-changing morphemesii. Exceptions: -ful spoonful, colorful-ship friendship-ism idealism-er Londoner, reader-hood childhood,3) AllomorphThe variants of the same morpheme in different contexts are called “allomorphs”. They may take different phonological or orthographical forms.in- / im- / il- / ir-: inactive immature illegal irregular-s / -es: cats /s/ dogs /z/ horses /iz/WordOpen ClassClosed ClassMarginal ClassNounAdjectiveAdverbMain VerbPrepositionPronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliary VerbCardinal NumeralOrdinal NumeralInterjectionGrammatical FunctionWord FormationSimple WordCompound WordDerivativeIII. Words1. classification in terms of grammatical function:1) closed-class words: all the function wordsa. with no complete lexical meaning but with grammatical meaningb. limited number, fixed membershipc. preposition, pronoun, determiner, conjunction, auxiliary verb2) open-class words: content wordsa. indefinitely extendable itemsb. new items are constantly being createdc. old items are constantly giving place to new onesd. noun, adjective, adverb, main verb3) marginal classa. cardinal numeralb. ordinal numeralc. interjection2. classification in terms of word-formation1) simple words: a. also called morpheme words, b. consist of only one free morphemec. mostly are short words, small in number, but with high frequencies of appearance and strong abilities of derivationd. the main part of English basic vocabulary2) derivatives: consist of a root and derivational affixes3) compounds: consist of two or more free morphemesa. compound noun: deadline snowfall handbookb. compound adjective: bitter-sweet light-blue world-famousc. compound verb: outline sightsee nicknamed. compound adverb: moreover neverthelesse. compound pronoun: another something anybody whateverf. compound conjunction: whenever wherever whereasg. compound preposition: alongside outside throughout notwithstandingIV. Phrases1. The phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head.2. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phrase(determiner) + (premodifier) + noun + (postmodifier)Milton lived in the 17th century.all the college studentshis new book on phonology2) The verb phrasea. Simple verb phrase(modifier) + main verbShe looks pale.They fully appreciate our problems.b. Complex verb phraseAuxiliary(or auxiliaries) + (modifier) + main verbIt is getting dark.She ought to have told him about it.Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.c. Finite verb phraseinitiated by a finite form, i.e. a verb form that changes according to tense or subjectd. Non-finite verb phraseInitiated by a non-finite form, i.e. a verb form that does not change according to tense or subjectWe went there to see a film.Having seen the film we had a discussion.Painted by a famous artist the portrait is invaluable.3) The adjective phrase(modifier) + adjective + (postmodifier / complementation)The weather is fine today.The course is pretty difficult.That work is too difficult for that child.Ill be glad to help you repair the car.4) The adverb phrase(modifier) + adverb + (postmodifier)Dont act so lowly.She spoke very clearly indeed.He spoke loudly.5) The prepositional phrase(modifier) + preposition + complementationDo you think you can borrow some money from your friend?They followed close behind me.V. ClausesA full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1. Clause elements1) Subject + predicatea. subject: a) The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tells of what the sentence is about.b) The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase.b. predicate: a) The predicate says something about the subject and bears the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.b) The predicate generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementationSubjectPredicateHenryis the most studious in the class.All the menhave done their best.Mr Carterwill investigate further.Jennies paintingswere judged inferior to WandasSmoking cigarettescauses trouble in the lungs2) Sentence Analysisa. Divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.clauseSubjectPredicatePredicate VerbObjectComplementAdverbial Eg: All the men have done their best.SentenceClauseNPVPSubjectPredicate VerbNPAll the menhave donetheir best.Objectb. Divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predicationclauseSubjectPredicateOperatorPredicationa) the operator: usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phraseb) the predication: comprises the main verb with its complementation (object, complement or adverbial)Eg: All the men have done their best.SubjectOperatorPredicateAll the menhave SentenceClausedone their best.Predication2. Classification:1) independent and dependent clausesa. independent clause: a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utteranceHe knows everything about it.That hat does not fit; try another.b. dependent clause: a clause that forms only part of another clause or of a phraseI dont think he knows everything about it.If that hat does not fit, try another.2) simple and complex clausesa. simple clause: a clause that consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”It is not true.b. complex clause: a clause that comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elementsWhat you said is not true.3) main and subordinate clausesa. main clause: a clause that takes another clause as its elementb. subordinate clause: a clause that forms part of the main clauseTom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentI think Tom knows everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2SimpleDependentSubordinateComplexIndependentPredicateMain4) finite and non-finite clausesa. finite clause: a clause with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicatorb. non-finite clause: a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as its predicatorI signed the paper to get the license.Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.5) verbless clausesa clause that is marked by the absence of any form of verb elementA verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.One of the most popular tourist sites in Italy, Pompeii was viewed by nearly two million visitors last year.Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.VI. SentencesA sentence is a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1. full and minor sentences1) full sentence: a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate2) minor sentence: a sentence fragmentWhen did he arrive? Last night.No smoking!Help!2. simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences1) simple sentence: a sentence that comprises only one independent clauseThe students have made better grades in the past few weeks.The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks.2) complex sentence: an independent clause that comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s)The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard.Tom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentSentenceSimpleI think Tom knows everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2DependentPredicateSentenceComplex3) compound sentence: a sentence that consists of two or more coordinated independent clausesMiss Lindstorm came to the party, but Mr and Mrs Sherman did not.I know nothing, but Tom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause2PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause1CompoundSentence4) compound-complex sentence: a sentence that consists of two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clauseThey watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldnt see the program because our television was broken.I know nothing but I think Tom knows everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause2Obj.Clause3PredicatePredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause1SentenceCompound-complexLecture 2 Basic Clause TypesI. Basic clause elements:1. Subject: 1) the them or the topic of a clause2) a NP or an equivalent of NP (pronoun, -ing, infinitive, nominal clause)3) the doer2. Predicate verb:1) linking verb: followed by a subject complementbe, smell, become, turn, sound, etc.This dish smells delicious.be used as a linking verb or an auxiliary?He is a teacher.He is teaching.2) intransitive verb: do not require an objectDaffodils bloom in early spring.He is running.3) transitive verb: must be followed by objectsa. monotransitive verbb. complex transitive verbc. ditransitive verb3. Object: the doee1) Direct object2) Indirect object4. Complement:1) Subject complement: following a linking verb, relates to the subject2) Object complement: following an object, relates to the objectHe is a teacher.We made him our teacher.5. Adverbial:1) Adjuncts: denote the time, place, manner, purpose, cause, result, condition, concession, and accompanying circumstances concerned with the action, process or state denoted by the verbRecently they had an accident.He always drives carefully.The porter will take your luggage upstairs.Though they knew the war was lost, they continued fighting.2) Disjuncts: expresses an evaluation of, or comment on, what is being said with respect to the form of the communication or to its meaningFrankly, I can do nothing about it.Briefly, she didnt want to speak to him.3) Conjuncts: function as connectives between phrases, clauses or sentencesDo it now. Otherwise, it will be too late.Tom hasnt arrived yet. He may, however, come later.They have their umbrellas up; therefore, it must be raining.Strictly speaking, it is only the adjunct that can be rightly labeled an adverbial, which is generally treated as one of the five elements of a clause.II. Basic clause types:1. SVC: the main verb is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complementThe man is a teacher.He looks fine.Dinner is at six oclock.2. SV: the main verb is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element Iron rusts.Everybody laughed.3. SVO: the main verb is a monotransitive which must be followed by an object.I want a ticket.Liverpool won the game.4. SVOC: the main verb is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object + object complementWe made him our spokesman.They elected him president.The implied relationship between the object and the object complement can be expressed by means of a corresponding SVC sentence with a copular verb “be” if the object complement is a current attribute and “become” if it is a resulting attribute We find them very pleasant. (They are very pleasant.) Carol made Joshua and Peter her assistants. (Joshua and Peter became her assistants.)5. SVoO: the main verb is a ditransitive verb which is to be followed by two objects: indirect and direct objectI sent him a telegram. (I sent a telegram to him.)Mary lent me her car. (Mary lent her car to me.)6. SVA: the main verb is from a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbialI live in Beijing.They lived in a hotel.7. SVOA: the main verb is one of some monotransitives which must be followed by an object and an obligatory adverbialI put the material evidence in front of him.He treated her widely.Compare SVCSVHe is a clever boy.He is running fast.Compare: SVSVA; SVOSVOAIron rusts slowly.I live in Beijing.I want a ticket very much.I put the material evidence in front of him.He is running fast.He runs fast.Compare SVoOSVOCI made him a cup of tea.(I made a cup of tea for him.)We made him our spokesman.(He became our spokesman.)III. Transformation and Expansion1. Transformation1) affirmative negative2) statement question3) active passiveShe gave him some money. Did she give him any money? She didnt give him any money. He was given some money. Some money was given to him.2. Expansion:1) adding modifiers2) coordination3) subordinationWhen reports came into London Zoo that a wild puma had been spotted forty-five miles south of London, they were not taken seriously, but, as the evidence began to accumulate, experts from the Zoo felt obliged to investigate, for the descriptions given by people who claimed to have seen the puma were extraordinarily similar.Lecture 3 Subjectverb ConcordSubject-verb concord means agreement between subject and predicate verb in person and number, but the concord between subject and verb is mainly found in number.I. Principles of Concord 1. Grammatical Concord: the rule that the verb must match its subject in number.2. Notional Concord: the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion.3. Principle of Proximity:agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject.Generally speaking, the grammatical principle applies to formal English and therefore is recommended for classroom teaching. The notional principle and the principle of proximity, on the other hand, play an auxiliary role in supporting the grammatical principle in informal English.Grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realiz