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Rhetorical options*1、What is rhetoric?( Definitions of rhetoric)the art or science of communication in words; this art or science practiced or taught as a formal discipline, esp. the doctrine formulated by Aristotle and taught throughout the Middle ages; overornate or ostentatious language. (Longman Modern English Dictionary)2、 Whats the purpose of rhetoric?（两种说法）The prevailing view about the purpose of rhetoric is to express oneself well and to communicate effectively in order to secure a desired result by employing rhetorical means efficiently.“to enlighten the understanding , to please the imagination, to move the passion ,or to influence the will.” “促进理解、引起想象、调动感情、或者说影响人们的意志” (18世纪苏格兰修辞学家George Campbell）*3、What is discussed in rhetoric?（contents of rhetorical） Rhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric deals with the theoretical problem of rhetoric, while practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things, including structure, diction. Rhythm, tone, style, and anything related to the effective use of language.4、The Highest Principles of Rhetoricthe highest principle of rhetoric is to adapt to specific situation, that is, “adaptability” or “appropriateness”.Sentence（syntactic device）1、 What is sentence？A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. Generally, an effective sentence must possess five essential qualities: correctness, clearness, unity, coherence and emphasis.(正确、清楚、统一、连贯、强调）2、 句子的组成A sentence must contain a subject and a verb (although one may be implied).wordscorrect grammarmeaning 3、 句子的分类Sentences may be classified according to Grammar or Rhetoric as to meaning and as to form:Grammatical Classification of Sentences I. As to meaning: II. As to Form: 1. Declarative Sentence 1. Simple Sentence 2. Interrogative Sentence 2. Compound Sentence（并列） 3. Imperative Sentence 3. Complex Sentence （复合） 4. Exclamatory Sentence 4. Compound Complex SentenceRhetorical Classification of SentencesIII. As to Arrangement 1. Periodic Sentence （圆周句）left-branching sentence 2. Loose Sentence（松散句）right-branching sentence 3. Balanced Sentence4、The short and long sentenceShort sentences, on the whole, are characterized by their brevity, quick tempo and force. The short sentence is relatively simple in form, clear in grammatical relation, and terse and forceful in style.Long sentence is relatively complex in form, fully expressive in capacity, and often used in formal style to show ones complicated mentality or various kinds of relationship of different things. 5、the simple，compound and complex sentenceA Simple sentence has only one clause to make a statement, and so it is good for directness and clearness.The Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses which are of equal status, that is, the clauses are paratactic (parallel; coordinate) in relationship.The complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. Subordinate clauses are named according to their functions. Left-branching sentence(periodic sentence)：*6、the branching sentences Right-branching sentence（loose sentence）：Left-branching sentence(periodic sentence)：the periodic sentence has its main idea at the end of the sentence.supportive or qualifying information are placed before the main clause or assertion.Right-branching sentence（loose sentence）：in a loose sentence, the main idea is put at the beginning of the sentence,and supportive or qualifying information comes from it. *7、Balanced sentence：When a sentence contains tow parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning,it is balanced sentence.The main ideas are often presented in parallel phrases or clauses.Parallelism排比：the main function of parallelism is to add clarity and coherence to what one wishes to communicate。Antithesis对比：antithesis is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve force and emphasis。Chiasmus回文 and antimetabole交叉：chiasmus is a device that consists of two balanced statements， the second of which reverses the order of the words in the first，with or without a repetition of words。For example：we eat for live，not live for eat。（here the key words in the first statement are repeated，and reversed in order in the second。This is called antimetabole。）he was an angle on the surface，but at heart a knave。（here there is no repetition of words;but the position of the nouns and adverbials are reversed. This is called chiasmus.）climax(渐进)：it is extremely effective in stirring up feelings and emotions，or in driving home a point。anti-climax or bathos（突降或渐降）：is a device that involves stating ones thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity，from strong to weak，from weight to light or frivolous。It is often used to ridicule or satirize。*9、syntactic schemes of inversion（句子的倒装）：分为grammatical inversion（语法倒装）和rhetorical inversion（修辞倒装）；一个倒装句能倒回到正常的顺序是修辞倒装，不能倒回的是语法倒装。The inversion is not a factor of correctness, but effectiveness of that sentence. Function of emphasis, vividness, balance, close connection and compactness and rhyming verse。10、the function of sentence：The four basic sentence functions in the worlds languages include the declarative, interrogative, exclamative, and the imperative.Lexical device（word 词）1、 the meaning of word：两种Associative meaning and conceptual meaning。或者七种conceptual meaning，connotative meaning，social meaning，effective meaning，reflective meaning，collocating meaning，thematic meaning。2、 词的分类three layers of words：The learned, the common and the colloquial.Four types of vocabulary：Reading vocabulary，listening vocabulary，writing vocabulary，speaking vocabulary。 short words and long words; common words or learned words; formal, informal or colloquial words; general or specific words; concrete or abstract words; referential or emotive words(意义词或情感词）.3、 the principle of choice of words： words for clearness words for accuracy words for effectiveness*4、lexical repetitionsyntactic anaphora（repetition of beginning words首语重复）5、rhetorical question（设问）Phonetic device（语音学）1、 修辞格Alliteration（头韵） Assonance（类韵） Homeoteleuton（同韵脚） Onomatopoeia（拟声） *2、rhythm 的组成：the rhythm of English prose involves prosodic features such as stress，pitch（tone），volume（loudness），pause and tempo，apart from the usual intonation patterns。*Figures of speech（修辞格）1、what is figures of speech？（修辞学的定义） Figure of speech is an “Ancient term for any form of expression in which the normal use of language is manipulated, stressed, or altered for rhetorical effect” (P.H. Matthews). 2、 functions of figure of speech（四大功能）Figures of speech are devices to make our language figurative; they lend force to an idea, heighten effect of expression, or create suggestive imagery。3、Figures of speech大体分为三类： 音韵修辞格(phonological rhetorical devices )词义修辞格(semantic rhetorical devices)句法修辞格(syntactical rhetorical devices)音韵修辞格(phonological rhetorical devices) 是利用词语的语音特点创造出来的修辞手法。它主要包括onomatopoeia, alliteration, homeoteleuton(谐缀格）, assonance and consonance. 词义修辞格(semantic rhetorical devices) 词义修辞格主要借助语义的联想和语言的变化等特点创造出来的修辞手法。它们主要包括 simile, metaphor, allusion, metonymy, transferred epithet, personification, hyperbole, irony, euphemism, pun, oxymoron, zeugma, contrast 等。句法修辞格(syntactical rhetorical devices) 句子结构上的修辞格主要是指通过句子结构的均衡布局或是突出重点创造出来的修辞手法。这类辞格主要包括repetition, rhetorical question, antithesis, apostrophe 等。它们与汉语中的反复、设问、对偶、倒装基本相同 。另外一种分类，分为相似修辞格（4种）simile，metaphor，analogy，personification。相反修辞格opposition和相关修辞格（association）。 *There are many kinds of figure of speech and they can be divided into many groups, such as :figures of similarity, figures of relationship, figures of opposition, figures of emphasis, figures of sound and so on.*Simile明喻：A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common。Words like as，so，like。组成要素：comparing words，subject，reference，ground。功能：simile have three main uses：descriptive，illustrative and illuminative。例子：her locks were yellow as gold。Metaphor暗喻：a metaphor makes an implied comparison between two unlike elements。功能：three main uses：descriptive，illustrative and illuminative。例子：jim was a fox。*Analogy类比： a comparison of two things based on their being alike in some way。Analogy is chiefly used for the purpose of persuasion or for the explanation or exposition of an idea。只有三种形式：A is to B as C is to DA is to B what C is to Djust as A and B so C and DPersonification拟人：is a figure of speech that gives human form or feelings to animal，or life and personal attributesMetonymy借代Synecdoche提喻Antonomasia换称Syllepsis一语双叙Zeugma轭式搭配Paradox反论Oxymoron矛盾修饰法Hyperbole夸张Understatement低调陈述Euphemism委婉*Irony反讽：irony is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant，the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense。*Innuendo暗讽：a mild form of irony，hinting in a rather roundabout way at something disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person or subject mentioned。*Sarcasm反语：sarcasm is an intensity form of irony，it attacks in a taunting and bitter manner， and its aim is to disparage，ridicule and wound the feeling of the subject attacked。Transferred epithet转移修饰法Punning双关*Allusion典故：An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a place, event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication.功能： It is often employed to reinforce the emotion or the ideas of ones own work with the emotion or ideas of another work.例子：Goldilocks and the Three Bears:金凤花和三只小熊 Goldilocks now stands for anything that is “just right” for any situation. Until recently, financial markets appeared to be betting that the Goldilocks economyneither too hot, nor too coldwas safe from the bears. The rattled markets are a reminder that sooner or later growth will slow or inflation will rise. (一直以来，金融机构似乎都笃信于经济既没过热或过冷，远离熊市，直到市场最近的恐慌才再一次提醒了人们，经济的增长迟早会减速，通胀迟早会出现.)
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