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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,What differences are there in the way in which individual learners acquire a second language?,Age,Language aptitude,Learning styles,Motivation,Personality,sex,Social factors:Social class,Affective states:Anxiety,general factors,Age,what do you think of bilinggual kindergartens?Can they benefit childrens SLA?,Children vs.teenager vs.adults(pronunciation/rate/grammmar),Critical period hypothesis(pronunciation/grammar),1.学习外语的开始年龄并不在很大程度上影响习得的程序，任何年龄开始学习一门外语都有可能获得成功。,2.学习外语的起始年龄较明显地影响习得的速度和效率。在语法、词义和词汇方面，少年比儿童和成年人表现得更为出色（如果学习时间相同）,3.学习时间长短影响习得的成功程度，而学习起始年龄对将达到的精密程度起着决定作用，尤其是语音方面。（束定芳，庄智象）,4.刘润清认为外语学习的最佳开始年龄并非越早越好，而是大约在九岁左右。,Language aptitude,1.phonimic coding-encoding,语音编码解码能力,2.grammar sencitivity,语法敏感性,3.language analytic ability,归纳性语言学习能力,4.memory,联想记忆能力,Language aptitude,1.phonimic coding-encoding,语音编码解码能力,2.grammar sencitivity,语法敏感性,3.language analytic ability,归纳性语言学习能力,4.memory,联想记忆能力,Learning styles,Field dependence/,Field independence,origin,Reflectivity/impulsivity 审慎/冲动,Visual/auditory/kinaesthetic/tactile,Holistic/analytic,.,children vs.Adolescents/adults,Males vs.Females,Object-oriented jobs vs.People-oriented jobs,Urban,technological societies vs.Rural,agrairan societies,Rigid social structures vs.Free social structures,Group-centred people vs.Individualistic people,Field independent,Field dependent,Adolescents/adults,children,Males,Females,Object-oriented jobs,People-oriented jobs,Urban,technological societies,Rural,agrairan societies,Free social structures,Rigid social structures,Individualistic people,Group-centred people,Motivation,Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation,Intrinsic motivation derives from interest.,Extrinsic motivation emphasizes external rewards or punishements.,Intrinsic motivation:long-term success,Extrinsic motivation:short-term success,Integrative/instrumental motivation,Integrative motivation involves a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group.,Instrumental motivation concerns the practical value and advantages of learning a new language.,Resultative motivation:result of positive learning experiences.,Machiavellian motivation:motivated to learn because of negative attitude towards the target language community.In this case,negative feelings may lead to a desire to manipulate and overcome the people of the target language.,Personality,Introvert/extrovert,CALP(Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency):formal academic learning,BICS(Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills):language skills needed in social situations,-Jim Cummins,sex,verbal fluency.,memorizing complex forms.,computing compositional rules.,sex,Women outperform men on verbal fluency.,Women better at memorizing complex forms.,Men better at computing compositional rules.,Social factors:,Social class:middle vs.working class,CALP(Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency):formal academic learning,BICS(Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills):language skills needed in social situations,Affective states,Secure&Free of stress,Fear;anger;self-pity;sadness;anxiety,Anxiety,Trait anxiety气质型:a more permanent predisposition to be anxious,perhaps best viewed as an aspect of personality.,State anxiety状态型:apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time as a response to a definite situation.It is a combination of trait and situation-specific anxiety.,Situation-specific anxiety:aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking,examinations,or class participation.,Foreign Language Anxiety:communication apprehension;fear of negative evaluation;tests,What causes state or situation anxiety?,I was quite frightened when asked questions again.I dont know why;the teacher does not frighten me,but my mind is blocked when Im asked questions.I fear lest I give the wrong answer and will discourage the teacher as well as be the laughing stock of the class maybe.Anyway,I felt really stupid and helpless in class.,Face,Competitiveness,What effects does anxiety have on learning?,Facilitating anxiety:motivate the learners to fight the new learning task,prompting them to make extra efforts to conquer the task,Debilitating anxiety causes the learner to flee the task in order to avoid anxiety.,Language learning Anxiety,learning effiency,Anxiety level,Moderate anxiety,Stage,Type of anxiety,Effect on learning,Beginner,Post-beginner,later,Stage,Type of anxiety,Effect on learning,Begin-ner,Very little-restricted to state anxiety,none,Post-begin-ner,Situation anxiety developes if learner develops negative expectations based on bad learning experiences,Learner expects to be nervous and performs poorly,later,Poor performance and continued bad learning experiences result in increased anxiety,Continued poor performance,
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