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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,British History and Cultures,Contents,Chapter 1,Geography, Climate and People,Chapter 2,History,Chapter 3,Political System,Chapter 4,Legal System-Laws and Rules,Chapter 5,Economy and Welfare,Chapter 6,Education and Media,Chapter 7,Literature,Chapter 8,Religion and Belief,Chapter 9,Traditions and Customs,Chapter 10,Major Cities and Scenic Spots,Chapter 1 Geography, Climate and People,Section 1 Geography,1.Geographical Features,The United Kingdom occupies the major part of the British Isles archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands.,Scotland accounts for just under a third of the total area of the UK and including nearly eight hundred islands. Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Faul.,Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK and is mostly mountainous. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales. It also has over 1200 km of coastline and there are several islands off the Welsh mainland.,Northern Ireland accounts for just 14160 square kilometers and is mostly hilly.,The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49 to 61N, and longitudes 9 W to 2 E. England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK.,The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: 14 British Overseas Territories and three Crown Dependencies. They are distinct from the Commonwealth of Nations.,2. Rivers and Mountains,The main rivers in Great Britain run from north to south, keeping well to the west to the basin of the River Severn. Westward flowing streams reach the Atlantic in relatively short distances.,The rivers flowing east are longer, several coalescing into wide estuaries. To the south, another group of rivers enter the Wash. The big drainage complex of the Thames dominates the south and the east of England. The rivers flowing into the English Channel are mainly short.,The chief mountain ranges are the Pennies in the middle, the Cambrians in the west and the Grampians in the North of Great Britain. Besides, there are some small mountains. Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the UK. Scafell Pike is the highest mountain in England and Snowdon is the highest in Wales, but the second highest mountain in the Uk is Ben Macdhui in Cairngorm Mountains of the Grampians, Scotland.,Notes,1.,The English Channel,often referred to simply as the,channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Great Britain from northern France, and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. It is about 560 km (350 mi) long and varies in width from 240 km (150 mi) at its widest, to only 34 km (21 mi) in the Strait of Dover. It is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75000 km2 (29000 sq mi).,2.,The Republic of Ireland, described as Ireland, is a state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned in 1921. It shares its only land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom on the north-east of the island. The state is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, St Georges Channel to the south east, the Irish Sea to the east.,3.,The Channel Tunnel, is a 50.5-kilometre undersea rail tunnel linking Folkestone, Kent in England with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais near Calais in northern France beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. At its lowest point, it is 75 meters deep. At 37.9 kilometers , the Channel Tunnel possesses the longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world, although the Seikan Tunnel in Japan is both longer overall at 53.85 kilometers , and deeper at 240 meters below sea level.,4.,The Lake Distric,t, also commonly known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes and its mountains (or fells), and its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth and the Lake Poets. The central, and most visited, part of the area is called the Lake District National Park which was designated as a National Park in 1951. It is the largest of thirteen National Parks in England and Wales, and second largest in the UK (after the Cairngorms).,5.The River Thames,is a major river flowing through southern England. While it is best known because its lower reaches flow through central London, the river flows alongside several other towns and cities, including Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames, Windsor, Kingston upon Thames and Richmond.,6.,The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organization of fifty-four independent member states. All but two (Mozambique and Rwanda) of these countries were formerly part of the British Empire, out of which it developed. The member states cooperate within a framework of common values and goals as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace. The Commonwealth is not a political union, but an intergovernmental organization through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status.,Section 2 Climate,Several boundary conditions in Britain allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air. The large temperature variation creates instability and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather.,Regional climates in the United Kingdom are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude. Different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country.,Spring,Spring is the period from March to May. It is generally a calm, cool and dry season. However, as the sun rises higher in the sky, temperatures can rise relatively high.,There is a fair chance of snow earlier in the season when temperatures are colder.,Mean temperatures in spring are markedly influenced by latitude.,Summer,Summer lasts from June to September and is the hottest season. Summer can often be a dry season, but rainfall totals can have a wide local variation due to localized thunderstorms.,Climatic differences at this time of year are more influenced by latitude and temperatures are highest in southern and central areas and lowest in the north.,Autumn,Autumn in the United Kingdom lasts from October to November. The season is notorious for being unsettled.,Atlantic depressions during this time can become intense and sustained winds of hurricane force can be recorded.,However, the United Kingdom often experiences an “Indian Summer. Coastal areas in the southern half of England have on average the warmest autumns.,Winter,Winter in the UK is defined as lasting from December to February. The season is generally cool, wet and windy. Precipitation is plentiful throughout the season. For a majority of the landmass snow is possible but not frequent, apart from the higher altitudes.,Towards the later part of the season the weather usually stabilizes with less wind, less precipitation and lower temperatures.,During periods of light winds and high pressure frost and fog can become a problem. Mean winter temperatures in the UK are most influenced by proximity to the sea.,Notes,1.The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the worlds oceanic divisions. With a total area of about 106400000 square kilometers (41100000 sq mi), it covers approximately twenty percent of the Earths surface and about twenty-six percent of its water surface area. The first part of its name refers to Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the “Sea of Atlas.,2.The Azores High, also known as North Atlantic (Subtropical) High/Anticyclone, the Bermuda-Azores High or the Bermuda High/Anticyclone in the United States, is a large subtropical semi-permanent centre of high atmospheric pressure found near the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean, at the Horse latitudes. It forms one pole of the North Atlantic oscillation, the other being the Icelandic Low. The system influences the weather and climatic patterns of vast areas of North Africa and Europe. The aridity of the Sahara Desert and Mediterranean Basin is due to the subsidence of air in the system.,3.,The Great Storm of 1987,occurred on the night of 15/16 October 1987, when an unusually strong weather system caused winds to hit much of southern England and northern France. It was the worst storm to hit England since the Great Storm of 1703 (284 years earlier) and was responsible for the deaths of at least 22 people in England and France combined (18 in England, at least four in France).,4.,An Indian summer,is a meteorological phenomenon that occurs in the autumn. It refers to a period of considerably above normal temperatures, accompanied by dry and hazy conditions, after there has been a killing frost.,5.The Scottish Highlands is a historic region of Scotland. It was culturally distinguishable from the Scottish Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when English replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands. The term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands.,6.The Pennines are a low-rising mountain range, separating the North West of England from Yorkshire and the North East. Often described as the “backbone of England, they are around the northern and eastern edges of Greater Manchester, through the Yorkshire Dales past the Cumbrian Fells to the Cheviot Hills on the Anglo-Scottish border. North of the Aire Gap, the Pennines give out a western spur into Lancashire, the Forest of Bowland, and south of the gap is a similar spur, the Rossendale Fells and the West Pennine Moors.,7.A hardiness zone is a geographically defined area in which a specific category of plant life is capable of growing, as defined by climatic conditions, including its ability to withstand the minimum temperatures of the zone. For example, a plant that is described as “hardy to zone 10 means that the plant can withstand a minimum temperature of 1C. A more resilient plant that is “hardy to zone 9 can tolerate a minimum temperature of 7C. First developed for the United States by the Department of Agriculture (USDA), the use of the zones has been adopted by other nations.,Section 3 People,Britain has a population of over 60 million. Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world.,The majority of the population are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons. Most people in Wales and Scotland are descendants of the Celtic people. The Irish people were also of Celtic origin.,Britain also has a considerable number of Italians, Greeks, Australians, and New Zealanders who have settled in the country as permanent residents. In addition, there is a large number of immigrants from Africa and Asia. All these immigrants have made Britain one of the most culturally diverse countries in Europe.,Supplementary Reading,Relevant Knowledge of the United Kingdom,Capitals:,England & U.K. London,Wales Cardiff,Scotland Edinburgh,Northern Ireland Belfast,Cities:,Birmingham is the second largest city in England and is well known as its automobiles, electrical equipment, electronics, munitions and many other metal products.,Manchester became one the centers of textile industries during the Industrial Revolution and has been known as a metropolitan county.,Liverpool is the second largest seaport in Britain.,Glasgow is a large city and economic center. And it is the third largest city in the United Kingdom.,Birmingham,Liverpool,Glasgow,Manchester,Others:,River: Britain longest: Severn River (338km),2nd longest & most important: Thames River (336km),Scotland most important: River Clyde,Mountain: Britain highest: Ben Nevis (1 343m),Wales highest: Snowdonia (1 085m),Lake: Britain largest: Lough Neagh (396m2) in Northern Ireland,Severn River,Thames River,Chapter 2 History,Section 1 The Origin and History of the UK,1. Prehistory,England in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture. During the Iron Age, Celtic culture arrived.,The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD, subsequently conquering much of Britain till 410.,Several centuries later, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.,The Norman conquered England in 1066, which led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy.,The House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II. During the 14th century, the Plantagenet and House of Valois clashed in the Hundred Years War. The Black Death epidemic hit England, starting in 1348. The civil war led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors.,2. Early Modern,During the Tudor period, England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified.,Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church. The roots of the split were more political than theological. However, there were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henrys daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I.,During the Elizabethan period, competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585. With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French. The political structure of the island was changed in 1603.,However, based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced with the Commonwealth. It was now constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689.,Bill of Rights,The Great Fire of London in 1666 gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards. In Parliament the Tories and Whigs had. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national church of each remained separate.,Oliver Cromwell,3. Late Modern and Contemporary,Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering. This paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire.,During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from Englands countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories.,London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era. Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I. Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonization, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.,Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England.,Notes,1.,The Norman conquest of England,began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy, who became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating the king Harold II of England. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical hierarchy. This, in turn, brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England in a new era often referred to as Norman England.,2.,The House of Plantagenet,was a royal house founded by Geoffrey V of Anjou, father of Henry II of England. Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gtinais and gained the County of Anjou through marriage during the 11th century. The dynasty accumulated several other holdings, building the Angevin Empire which at its peak stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland and the border with Scotland.,3.The Hundred Years War,was a series of wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings. The House of Valois claimed the title of King of France, while the Plantagenets claimed the thrones of both France and England. The Plantagenet kings were the 12th-century rulers of the Kingdom of England, and had their roots in the French regions of Anjou and Normandy.,4.The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York (the “red and the “white rose, respectively). They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1485, although there was related fighting both before and after this period. The final victory went to a relatively remote Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king Richard III and married Edward IVs daughter Elizabeth of York to unite the two houses. The House of Tudor subsequently ruled England and Wales for 117 years.,5.Oliver Cromwell (,克伦威尔,),(25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth, and ruled England, Scotland and Ireland. Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.,6.The Victorian era of the United Kingdom,was the period of Queen Victorias reign from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a long period of prosperity for the British people. The era is often characterized as a long period of peace, known as the Pax Britannica, and economic, colonial, and industrial consolidation, temporarily disrupted by the Crimean War, although Britain was at war every year during this time. Towards the end of the 19th century, the policies of New Imperialism led to increasing colonial conflicts and eventually the Anglo-Zanzibar War and the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform and the widening of the voting franchise.,Section 2 Industrial Revolution,The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.,Innovations,Textiles,s,team power,and i,ron making,represent three leading sectors, in which there wer
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