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ChapterEightLanguageinUse(Pragmatics)1.Introduction:DefinitionofPragmaticsn nThestudyoflanguageinuse.n nThestudyofmeaningincontext.n nThestudyofspeakersmeaning,utterancemeaning,&contextualmeaning.n nSentencemeaning:What does X mean?n nUtterancemeaning:What do you mean by X?Ex.1.Dog!2.Mybagisheavy.n nSentenceMeaningcontext-independent.UtteranceMeaning It is context-dependent.It is the product of sentence meaning and context.Therefore,it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.n nSemanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaningn nPragmaticmeaning:themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontext2.SpeechActTheoryn nJohnAustinn nHow to Do Things with Words(1962)n nspeechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesn nConstativesvs.performativesn nConstatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:n nI go to the park every Sunday.n nI teach English.n nPerformatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.n nPerformativeverbs:name,bet,etc.n nI do.n nI name this ship Queen Elizabeth.n nI bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.n nI give and bequeath my watch to my brother.n nI promise to finish it in time.n nI apologize.n nI declare the meeting open.n nI warn you that the bull will charge.n nMinister:addressingthegroom)Minister:addressingthegroom)(GroomsName),doyoutake(BridesName)foryour(GroomsName),doyoutake(BridesName)foryourlawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGodslawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGodsordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyouordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyoulove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdaylove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdayforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive?foraslongasyoubothshalllive?n nXXXXXX，你是否愿意娶，你是否愿意娶，你是否愿意娶，你是否愿意娶xxxxxx为妻，按照圣经的教训与他为妻，按照圣经的教训与他为妻，按照圣经的教训与他为妻，按照圣经的教训与他同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？Groom:Ido.Groom:Ido.Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.n nThedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.n nAllsentencescanbeusedtodothings.n n3.IllocutionaryActTheoryn nSpeechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:n nAlocutionaryact:is the linguistic aspect of an utterance,i.e.the act of verbally saying something.n nAnillocutionaryact:An illocutionary act is the behavioral aspect of an utterance involving the intentions of the speaker,i.e.the act of dong something.n nAperlocutionaryact:istheconsequentialaspectofanutteranceintermsoftheeffectsthespeakerachievesonthehearer,i.e.theactofbringsomethingtohappenn nAmong these kinds of speech acts,pragmatists are most interested in illocutionary act.This is because illocutionary act conforms to the speakers intention and is thus the focus for the study of verbal communication.3.ConversationalImplicaturen nPeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.n nH.P.Gricen nWilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967n nLogic and Conversationin1975n nGricestheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.n nHisansweristhereissomeregularityinconversation.n nMakeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.n nMaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.n n MaximofQuality:Donnotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackevidence;n nMaximofRelation:Berelative.n nMaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.n nCPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.n nPeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.n nHowever,CPisoftenviolated.n nViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)1.1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.2.2.A:昨天上街买了些什么昨天上街买了些什么?3.3.B:就买了些东西。就买了些东西。4.4.IdontwanttotellyouwhatIbought.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.Violationofthemaxims(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.n nXrunsasfastasadeer.n nHeismadeofiron.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isntit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.Itsridiculous.Violationofthemaxims(Relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.IdontwanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.Violationofthemaxims(Manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Letsgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-TE.Dontgivethemchocolate.2.Avoidambiguity买一赠一。买一赠一。3.BebriefA:Didyougetmyassignment?B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles.notsatisfied.Characteristicsofimplicaturen nCalculability:hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.n nwhen sb says sth,which clearly does not make sense at the superficial level,the level of what is said,you will not simply think that he is talking nonsense,and stop thinking about it any more.You will instead try to find out its implied meaning at a deeper level.And if on the basis of every information available,there is one interpretation which may support your assumptions,then you will take it as the real point the speaker is trying to get across.n n In the case of the reference letter in the course In the case of the reference letter in the course book(p179),the reader will not simply think it utterly book(p179),the reader will not simply think it utterly useless and stop thinking after the first reading.He useless and stop thinking after the first reading.He will assume that the writer is still following some will assume that the writer is still following some normal rules like CP and tries to say sth relevant.normal rules like CP and tries to say sth relevant.Since the most important thing is whether the student Since the most important thing is whether the student is qualified for the position,the reader will have to is qualified for the position,the reader will have to assume that the writer has some negative views on assume that the writer has some negative views on that.that.n nCancellability/defeasibility:Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Idonotlikecoffee.B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Iwanttostayup.Non-detachability:implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform;implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms.A:Shallwegothecinematonight?B:Therellbeanexamtomorrow.Illtakeanexamtomorrow.Isntthereanexamtomorrow?CharacteristicsofimplicatureNon-conventionality:implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords.Itiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.A1A1：下午踢球去吧！：下午踢球去吧！：下午踢球去吧！：下午踢球去吧！A2A2：老王住院了？：老王住院了？：老王住院了？：老王住院了？B B：上午还在换草皮。：上午还在换草皮。：上午还在换草皮。：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。足球场安装了一个新门柱。足球场安装了一个新门柱。足球场安装了一个新门柱。n nConclusion:Conversational implicature is a type of implied meaning,which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context,under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.In this sense,implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning,or 言外之意in Chinese.5.RelevanceTheoryn nThe theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance:Communication and Cognitionn nspeakers may sometimes mean more than what they actually speakers may sometimes mean more than what they actually say.How do hearers know about it and fill this gap between say.How do hearers know about it and fill this gap between the semantic content and pragmatic inference?Grices the semantic content and pragmatic inference?Grices hypothesis is:there must be a principle to govern it-the hypothesis is:there must be a principle to govern it-the Cooperative principle,as he puts it.Cooperative principle,as he puts it.n nIn the CP,there is the maxim of relation the information In the CP,there is the maxim of relation the information should be relevant to the topic.Grice s maxim of relation-be should be relevant to the topic.Grice s maxim of relation-be relevant-has been elevated to the status of an overriding relevant-has been elevated to the status of an overriding principle governing communication and cognition by Sperber principle governing communication and cognition by Sperber and Wilson.The principle of relevance is at the center of their and Wilson.The principle of relevance is at the center of their claim of a new approach to the study of human claim of a new approach to the study of human munication.n nRelevance theory is a new approach to pragmatics.It attempts to answer not only philosophical questions(Grices abstract philosophical consideration of conversational implicature)about the nature of communication,but also psychological questions(esp.cognitive psychological mind)about how the interpretation process unfolds in the hearers mind.n nThey argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as:n nEvery act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.n nTwo key notions in it:n nOstensive communication and presumption of optimal relevancen nCommunication is not simply a matter of encoding Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding,it also involves inference.They and decoding,it also involves inference.They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer.maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer.From the speakers side,communication should be From the speakers side,communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something.This is called ostensive act.A express something.This is called ostensive act.A complete characterization of communication is that it complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferentialis ostensive-inferentialn nPresumption of optimal relevancen nThree definitions of relevance:n n1.An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in the context.n nBut relevance is a comparative concept.Some assumptions may be more relevant than others.They have improved on the definition by adopting an extent-condition format:n nExtent condition 1:An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large.n nExtent condition 2:An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.n n2.An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.n nAn phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and An phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.manifest is relevant to him.n nPresumption of optimal relevance means:n n1.The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus.n n2.The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I.n nEvery utterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect.n nOn the one hand,the effects achievable will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing.n nOn the other hand,the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects.In comparison to the effects achieved,the effort needed is always the smallest.n nOf all the interpretations of the stimulus which Of all the interpretations of the stimulus which confirm the presumption,it is the first interpretation confirm the presumption,it is the first interpretation to occur to the addressee that is the one the to occur to the addressee that is the one the communicator intended to municator intended to convey.n nE.g.E.g.George has a cat.George has a cat.n nThe first interpretation is The first interpretation is George has a big domestic catGeorge has a big domestic cat.But it.But it may also be used to mean may also be used to mean George has a tiger,a lion,a George has a tiger,a lion,a jaguarjaguar（美洲豹）（美洲豹）etc.But this will not be the most relevant etc.But this will not be the most relevant on account of the increased processing effort involved.The on account of the increased processing effort involved.The first interpretation consistent with the principle of relevance is first interpretation consistent with the principle of relevance is always the best hypothesis.always the best hypothesis.6.TheQ-andR-principlesn nThese principles were developed by L.Horn in 1984.The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grices Quantity,and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.n nThe definition of the Q-principle(hearer-based)is:The definition of the Q-principle(hearer-based)is:n n(1)(1)Make your contribution sufficient(cf.quantity);Make your contribution sufficient(cf.quantity);n n(2)(2)Say as much as you can(given R).Say as much as you can(given R).n nThe definition of the R-principle(speaker-based)is:The definition of the R-principle(speaker-based)is:n n(1)(1)Make your contribution necessary(cf.Relation,Make your contribution necessary(cf.Relation,Quantity-2,Manner);Quantity-2,Manner);n n(2)(2)Say no more than you must(given Q)Say no more than you must(given Q)n nThe hearer-based Q-principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.n nThe R-principle,in contrast,encourages the hearer to infer that more is meant.7.TheQ-,I-andM-principlesn nThis tripartite model was suggested by S.Levinson mainly in his 1987 papern n In essence(nature),Levinson says,the Q-,I-and M-principles are Grices two maxims of Quantity and a maxim of Manner reinterpreted neo-classically.And the maxims of Quality,as is the case in Horns theory,are kept intact(unchanged).n n Levinson does not agree with the treatment in both Sperber and Wilsons and Horns accounts(statements)to subsume(include)the second maxim of Quantity under a principle of relevance,or relation.n nSo he renames the second maxim of Quantity the Principle of Informativeness,I-Principle for short;and the first maxim of Quantity the Principle of Quantity or Q-Principle.n nQ-principle:n nSpeakers maxim:Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows,unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.n nRecipients corollary:Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows.n nI-principleI-principlen nSpeakers maxim:the maxim of minimizationSpeakers maxim:the maxim of minimizationn nSay as little as necessary,i.e.produce the minimal Say as little as necessary,i.e.produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational municational ends.n nRecipients corollary:the enrichment ruleRecipients corollary:the enrichment rulen nAmplify the informational content of the speakers Amplify the informational content of the speakers utterance,by finding the most specific interpretation,utterance,by finding the most specific interpretation,up to what you judge to be the speakers m-intended up to what you judge to be the speakers m-intended point.point.n nM-principlen nSpeakers maxim:Do not use a prolix,obscure or marked expression without reason.n nRecipients corollary:If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M,he did not mean the same as he would have,had he used the unmarked expression U specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations.n nThree heuristicsn nHeuristic 1 what isnt said,isnt.n nHeuristic 2 what is simply described is stereotypically exemplifiedn nHeuristic 3 whats said in an abnormal way isnt normal;or marked message indicates marked situation.8.PolitenessPrinciplen nGricesCPdoesnotexplainwhyspeakersoftenviolateCP.n nLeech(1983)putsforwardPPtosaveCP.n nAssocialbeings,peopleneedtotalkpolitely.A:WellmissBillandMary,wontwe?B:Well,wellallmissBill.(violationofquantitymaxim)n nSelf(自身自身)-referstothespeaker.n nOther(他人他人)-referstotheaddresseeorathirdperson,presentornot.n nBenefit(惠惠)&Cost(损损)n nGenerallyspeaking,ifthereisbenefit,theremustbecost.n nForsomeactssuchasgivinganinvitation,apieceofadviceandanofferareconsideredpolite-natured,forother isalwaysonthebeneficialside.n nForotheractslikearequest,anorderandademandareconsideredimpolite-natured,forotherisalwaysonthecostside.n nTactMaximn nGenerosityMaximn nApprobationMaximn nModestyMaximn nAgreementMaximn nSympathyMaximTactMaxima)Minimizecosttootherb)Maximizebenefittoother GenerosityMaxima)Minimizebenefittoself b)Maximizecosttoself ApprobationMaxima)Minimizedispraiseofotherb)MaximizepraiseofotherModestyMaxima)Minimizepraiseofselfb)Maximizedispraiseofself
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