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1Chapter 5：Semantics 语义学 1Chapter5：2n nSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.n n语义学是对语言意义的研究。语义学是对语言意义的研究。n nMeaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.n n意义是研究交际的核心内容。意义是研究交际的核心内容。n nWhatismeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.2Semantics-thestudyoflan3Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningn nNamingtheory(Plato)n n命名论命名论 n nTheconceptualistviewn n概念论概念论n nContextualism(Bloomfield)n n语境论语境论n nBehaviorismn n行为主义论行为主义论3Someviewsconcerningthestu4Namingtheory(Plato)命名论命名论n nWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.n n词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。n nLimitations:1)Applicable to nouns only.2)There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix 3)There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred4Namingtheory(Plato)命名论Words5Theconceptualistview概念论概念论n nTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.n n语言学形式和所指之间（即语言和现实世界之间）没有直接联系；而在对意义的解释中，形式和所指是通过思维概念彼此联系。5Theconceptualistview概念论The6OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角Symbol/form（符号（符号/形式）形式）word/phrase/sentenceReferent（所指）（所指）objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference（concept）（思想）（思想/指称）指称）6OgdenandRichards:semantic7TheTheoryofReferencen nWordsMeaning:Wordsnameorrefertothings-Platonicn nWordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizesrefers tosymbolreferent(word)stands for(object)7TheTheoryofReferenceWords8airplane89n nThesymbolorawordsignifies“things”byvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeakerofthelanguage;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.n n用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角9Thesymbolorawordsignifie10Contextualism(语境论)n nMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.n n意义应当从场景,运用,语境这些与语言行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究.n nTwotypesofcontextsarerecognized:n nSituationalcontext;linguisticsituationn n场景语境和语言语境10Contextualism(语境论)Meaning11n nLinguistic context:sometimes known as co-text,is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word,and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.n n语言语境有时也称为互文,它所涉及的是一个词与另一个词共现或搭配构成该词的部分意义的可能性,而且语境也涉及某一特定话语之前和之后的语境部分.11Linguisticcontext:sometime12n nForexample,“black”inblack hair&black coffee,or black sheep differsinmeaning;“The president of the United States”can meaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.n nThe seal could not be found.12Forexample,“black”inblac13Behaviorism(行为主义论)n nBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.n n在在特特定定情情境境下下,说说话话人人的的话话语语在在听听话话人人身身上引起的反应上引起的反应.n nThestoryofJackandJill:n nJillJackS_r-s_R13Behaviorism(行为主义论)Behavior14Lexicalmeaning词汇意义词汇意义n nSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.n n意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两个术语个术语.它们是意义的两个相关但不相同它们是意义的两个相关但不相同的方面的方面.14Lexicalmeaning词汇意义Sensean15n nSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.n n意义指的是语言形式的内在意义意义指的是语言形式的内在意义.它它是语言形式所有特征的集合是语言形式所有特征的集合,是抽象是抽象的的,而且与语境无关而且与语境无关,是词典编纂者是词典编纂者所感兴趣的方面所感兴趣的方面.15Sense-isconcernedwith16n nReference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.n n指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界中所指的事物中所指的事物;它涉及的是语言成分它涉及的是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系和非语言的经验世界之间的关系.16Reference-whatalinguist17Note:n nLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorning star andthe evening star,n nVenus金星金星/启明星启明星:在西边时是在西边时是eveningstar在东边时是在东边时是morningstarn nrising suninthemorningandthe sunsetatdusk.17Note:Linguisticformshaving18Majorsenserelations主要的意义关系主要的意义关系 n nSynonymy同义同义n nAntonymy反义反义n nPolysemy一词多义一词多义n nHomonymy同音异义同音异义n nHyponymy下义关系下义关系18Majorsenserelations主要的意义19Synonymy同义现象n nSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.n n同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近.意意义相近的词称为同义词义相近的词称为同义词 1)Dialectalsynonyms(方言同义词方言同义词)-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol gasoline19Synonymy同义现象Synonymyrefers20n nbuy/purchasen nthrifty/economical/stingyn nautumn/falln nflat/apartmentn ntube/underground2)Stylisticsynonyms(文体同义词文体同义词)-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;20buy/purchase21Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,情感和评价意义不同的同义词情感和评价意义不同的同义词4)Collocationalsynonyms(搭配同义词搭配同义词),),e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,语义不同的同义词语义不同的同义词21Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdi22Polysemy多义现象n nPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:n nA piece of furnituren nAll the people seated at a tablen nThe food that is put on a tablen nA thin flat piece of stone,metal wood,etc.n nOrderly arrangement of facts,figures,etc.22Polysemy多义现象Polysemy-the23Homonymy同音异义同音异义n nHomonymy-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsound orspelling,orinboth.n n同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的形同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的形式式,即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一样即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一样,或者两者都一样或者两者都一样.n nHomophone(同音异义词同音异义词)-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,23Homonymy同音异义Homonymy-th24n nHomogragh(同形异义词同形异义词)-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),n nCompletehomonym(完全同音异义完全同音异义词词)-)-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,24Homogragh(同形异义词)-whent25Note:n nApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.n n一个多义词是其基本意义（词源）发展的结果，它的各种意义在某种程度上是相互关联的。25Note:Apolysemicwordisth26Hyponymy下义关系下义关系n nHyponymy-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.n n下义关系指的是一个更普遍下义关系指的是一个更普遍,范围更广泛的词范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系和一个更具体的词之间的关系.n nSuperordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.n n意义上更普遍的那个词称为意义上更普遍的那个词称为上坐标词上坐标词.n nHyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.n n意义更具体的词称为意义更具体的词称为下义词下义词.26Hyponymy下义关系Hyponymy-the27n nCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.n n在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为并列下并列下义词义词.27Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthe28Hyponymy下义关系下义关系n nSuperordinate上坐标词上坐标词:flowern nHyponyms下义词下义词:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,n nSuperordinate上坐标词上坐标词:furnituren nHyponyms下义词下义词:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,28Hyponymy下义关系Superordinate上29Animalbirdfishinsectanimalhumananimaltigerlionelephant.29Animalbirdfis30n nInclusiveness包含关系包含关系n nAisincludedin/akindofB.n nCf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowern nSuperordinate/hypernym:themoregeneraltermn nHyponym:themorespecifictermn nCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclass30Inclusiveness包含关系31Antonymy(反义词反义词)n nGradableantonyms(等等级级/级差反义词级差反义词)-)-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,31Antonymy(反义词)Gradableantony32Gradableantonymyn ngood-badn nlong-shortn nbig-smalln nCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.n nCanhavecomparativeforms.n nCanbeaskedwithhow.32Gradableantonymygood-33Complementaryantonyms(互补反义词)n nComplementaryantonyms(互补反义词互补反义词)-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,n n一对一对互补反义词是以对一互补反义词是以对一方的否定就是对另一方的方的否定就是对另一方的肯定为特征肯定为特征.33Complementaryantonyms(互补反义34Complementaryantonymyn nalive:deadn nmale:femalen npresent:absentn ninnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboy:girln nhit:miss34Complementaryantonymyalive35n nRelationalopposites(关系反义词关系反义词)-exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.n n表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词.n ne.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,35Relationalopposites(关系反义词)36Converseantonymy(关系反义词)n nbuy:selln nlend:borrown ngive:receiven nparent:childn nhusband:wifen nteacher:studentn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee36Converseantonymy(关系反义词)bu37Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之间的意义关系句子之间的意义关系n n(1)XissynonymouswithY(X与与Y同义同义)n n(2)XisinconsistentwithY(X与与Y不一致不一致)n n(3)XentailsY(X蕴含蕴含Y)n n(4)XpresupposesY(X预设预设Y)n n(5)Xisacontradiction(X自我矛盾自我矛盾)n n(6)Xissemanticallyanomalous(X语义反语义反常常)37Senserelationsbetweensent38XissynonymouswithY(X与与Y同义同义)n nX:He was a bachelor all his life.Y:He never got married all his life.n nX:The boy killed the cat.Y:The cat was killed by the boy.n nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.38XissynonymouswithY(X与Y同39XisinconsistentwithY(X(X与与Y Y不一致不一致)n nX:He is single.n nY:He has a wife.n nX:This is my first visit to Beijing.n nY:I have been to Beijing twice.n nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.39XisinconsistentwithY(X与40XentailsY(X蕴含于蕴含于Y)n nX:John married a blond heiress.n nY:John married a blond.n nX:Marry has been to Beijing.n nY:Marry has been to China.n nEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.n nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.40XentailsY(X蕴含于Y)X:Johnm41XpresupposesY(X预设预设Y)n nX:His bike needs repairing.n nY:He has a bike.n nPaul has given up smoking.n nPaul once smoked.n nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.41XpresupposesY(X预设Y)X:His42Xisacontradiction(X自我矛盾)n n*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.n n*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.42Xisacontradiction(X自我矛43Xissemanticallyanomalous(X语义反常)n n*The man is pregnant.n n*The table has bad intentions.n n*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.43Xissemanticallyanomalous44Analysisofmeaning意义分析意义分析n nComponentialanalysis(成分分析)n nPredicationanalysis(述谓结构分析)44Analysisofmeaning意义分析Comp45Componentialanalysis成分分析成分分析n nComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.n n成分分析法是由结构语义学家提出的分析词义的方法.这个理论是基于这样一个信念:一个词的意义能被分解成被称为语义特征的意义成分.45Componentialanalysis成分分析Co46n nForexample:n nMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEn nGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE46Forexample:47Animalwords47Animalwords48Domesticanimals48Domesticanimals49Englishmotionverbs49Englishmotionverbs50Morecomplexonesn nfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)n nxisaparentofy,andxismale.n ntake:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)n nxcausesxtohavey.n ngive:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)n nxcausesxnottohavey.50Morecomplexonesfather:PAR51Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n n1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,n n首先首先,句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的总句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的总和和.n ne.g“The dog bites the man”issemanticallydifferentfrom“The man bites the dog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.51Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析152n nThecatischasingthemouse.n nThemouseischasingthecat.n nIhavereadthatbook.n nThatbookIhaveread.n nThedaughterofQueenElizabethssonisthesonofQueenElizabethsdaughter.52Thecatischasingthemouse53n n2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,n n其其次次,句句子子的的意意义义包包括括语语法法意意义义和和语语义意义两个方面义意义两个方面.532)Therearetwoaspectsto54n ne.g.n n*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.n n*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.n nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions(选择选择限制规则限制规则)(constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatother).54e.g.55Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech杰弗里杰弗里.利奇利奇).n nPredication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.n n述谓结构述谓结构是句子意义的抽象是句子意义的抽象.由由变元变元和和谓词谓词构成构成.55Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析P56n nAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.n n一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参与者一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参与者,在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成分分.n nApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.n n谓词是对变元所作的陈述,或是陈述一个句子中连接变元之间的逻辑关系.56Anargumentisalogicalpar57Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontained in a predication,we mayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:n nOne-place predication(单位述谓结构):smoke,grow,rise,run,57Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析A58n nTwo-place predication(双位述谓结构):like,love,save,bite,beat,n nThree-place predication(三位述谓结构):give,sent,promise,call,n nNo-place predication(空位述谓结构):It is hot.58Two-placepredication(双位述谓结构59Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析n nTom smokes.TOM(SMOKE)n nThe tree grows well.TREE(GROW)n nThe kids like apples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEn nI sent him a letter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER59Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析T60n nArgumentandPredicaten nJohnruns.runs(John)orR(j)n nJohnlovesMary.loves(John,Mary)orL(j,m)n nJohngaveMaryabook.gave(John,Mary,book)orG(j,m,b)60ArgumentandPredicate61n nOne-placepredicate:runn nTwo-placepredicate:loven nThree-placepredicate:give61One-placepredicate:run62Thank you!62Thankyou!
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