论翻译中词性转换

I. IntroductionParts of speech are the core content of the traditional grammar according to which words are classified as follows: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. Different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. English belongs to the Indo-European language family, and parts of speech in it are categorized as word-order, lexical meaning and inflection changes. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs have complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both. For example, the form ize, -en and -ify are used to denote the possessive case of verbs. But quite different from English, Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family and parts of speech are divided based on sentence structure function.Apart from the above differences, another great one is that English is a kind of static language which tends to use more nouns, prepositional phrases, etc. While Chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used. So, when we translate between these languages, we commonly use transformation of parts of speech to make the translation more standard and idiomatic. No one can say that the target language (TL) and the source language (SL) tex ts have the same meaning, because each one has its own meaning. Eugene A. Nida, a distinguished American theorist, reformed the traditional parts of speech and established a new system which has been applied into practice. For example,TL：她工作出色。SL： 1. She works excellently.2. Her excellent work3. the excellence of her work4. Her work is excellent.The different expressions indicate the same meaning. So the transformation of parts of speech is based on the premise that the target language must be faithful to theoriginal language. Correctly using of parts of speech conversion can make the translated version smoother and clearer. This thesis will study the importance of the transformation of parts of speech and problems concerning using this method and some countermeasures.II. Translation and Transformation of Parts of SpeechIt is hard to define translation as a science or an art, a skill or a taste. It is understood as a linguistic phenomenon, as an operation performed on languages. This operation is seen as a process of translating between source language and target language. Many dictionaries offer synonyms for translation such as interpretation, conversion, transformation, expressiveness, transference, which are followed by from one language into another. Other authorities make use of expressions such as identical, equivalent textual material, similar, comparable, etc. So translation may be defined as: the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent mater ial in another language (TL) (Schaffner 2). Roger Bell, a professor of linguistics, says that Translation is the expression in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences (5). The two definitions both refer to equivalent which replicates the same situation as in the original, while using completely different wording. Again, we have a descriptive definition from Nida: Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style (12). To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. Unfortunately, languages are not this simple, and difficulties may also arise when there are no equivalent parts of speech. Each language has its own special structure. Word-for-word correspondences do not exist in the process of translation. The reasons are as follows:1. Words have more than one meaning;2. Many words are culture-bound and have no direct equivalents;3. Cultural orientations can render a direct translation nonsensical;4. A culture may not have the background and understanding to translate experiences specific to other cultures. (Samovar 132)There are some examples which will be illustrated here. birds of a father means 一丘之貉天生有福,when translated into English, it may be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth. The important point is that shifts and changes in the technique of translating do not occur at random. Rather, they are linked with different cultures and times. So, we are seeking to different methods of translating to get equivalence of high level.Translation aims primarily at reproducing the message. To do anything else is essentially false to ones task as a translator. But to reproduce the message one mus t make a good many adjustments as accuracy and economy. There are four kinds of adjustments.(1) Semantic adjustmentIn order to completely express the meaning of the original work, sometimes a literal translation is not advised. For instance, The accounts were balanced. This indicates 已结账了 .If it is translated into 账已被平衡了nobody can understand it.(2) Word-order adjustmentIn the process of translation, the translator must pay more attention to the characteristics of languages. Here are some examp les. the rate of interest means 利 率the unit of measurement means 计量单位But these versions 利息的比率 and 计量的单位do not comply with briefness and parataxis which are the features of Chinese.(3) Grammatical adjustmentThe transformation of parts of speech is often used as a method of grammatical adjustment in order to get a better version. For example, We are lovers of the world peace. Means 我们热爱世界和平or 我们是世界和平的热爱者The former version would be much more idiomatic.(4) Literary-style adjustmentDifferent styles of writing have different requirements such as narration, argumentation, description and exposition, while there are formal and informal styles in the colloquial English. When doing translation, we should make the adjustment inaccordance with different styles. For example:(1) 但是，照抄照搬别国的经验，别国的模式，从来就不能得到成功。(引自邓小平文选)But the mechanical copying and applicationof foreign experience and models will get us now here. (From The selected woks of DENG Xiaoping)(2) In photographys pioneer days, sitting for a portrait called extreme patience. (Fantastic Story in Science and Technology)在摄影刚出现的日子里，坐着照一张相必须有极度耐心。(科技奇闻)From the above examples, we can see that, as a translation method the transformation of parts of speech is fit for all styles. Moreover, the transformation must correspond with the principles of translation. The most influential translation principle in the history of Chinese tradition theory was formulated by Yan Fu. Yan Fu laid down his famous three-character principle of translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. These three principles should be observed as the codes of practice in translation. Again, A. F. Tytler, an English professor, deduces three general laws of translation which will follow:1. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3. That the Translation should have all the ease of the original composition.(9)To make sure that versions match the principles of translation, it must find the theory of transformation. From the angle of linguistics, there are two levels of syntactic structure 一 surface structure and deep structure. The deep structure decides the sentence-meaning while the former decides the sentence pattern. Therefore, it is a key point to comprehend translations. Only if the unity of the deep structure in the original text and the surface structure are achieved in the translation, can the version correspond with the principles of translation. For example: SL: He bent solely upon profit.TL: 1.他只屈身于利润之前。2. 只有利润才能使他低头。3他唯利是图。The third version is best because of applying the conversion of parts of speech. So the conversion of parts of speech is of vital importance in the course of translating activity.III. Methods of Transformation of Parts of SpeechEnglish and Chinese do not belong to the same language family. They have different grammars and expressions. In the practical translation work, words in the original, if necessary, may be translated into identical in meaning but different in the parts of speech. For example, Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe means 火箭已被用来探索宇宙.If translated by word -by-word,火 箭 已发现对宇宙 的探索 的应用is totally incomprehensible. Therefore, transformation is one of the most important translation techniques in English-Chinese translation. Generally speaking, there are the following methods.A. Transformation into VerbsIn comparison, Chinese is a language in which verbs are more widely used than those in English; while in English nouns are more frequently used and occupy a dominant position, then we have to transform some English nouns into Chinese verbs in our practical translation.1. English nouns transformed into Chinese verbsFor some English nouns, which possess the property of verbs or are derived from verbs are often transformed into verbs. The following are some examples:(1) In China,there is a lot of emphasis on politeness.在中国，人们非常注重讲礼貌。(2) A careful study of the original text will give you a better translation.仔细研究原文，你会翻译得更好。(3) Those small factories are also lavish consumer and waster of raw materials.那些小工厂还在极大的消耗和浪费原材料。(4) You must be tired. Why dont you take a rest?你一定很累了，为什么不休息一会呢？2. English adjectives transformed into Chinese verbsThe form “be + adjectives makes adjectives possess the property of a verb, so they are often transformed into Chinese verbs. These English adjectives usually indicate consciousness, sentiment, and desire and so on. Illustrative examples are as follows:(1) I am anxious about his health.我担心他的身体健康。(2) Doctors have said that they are not sure they can save his life.医生们说他们不敢肯定能否救得了他的命。(3) Scientists are confidentthat all matter is indestructible.科学家们都深信，所有的物质都是不灭的。(4) It was a very informative meeting.会上透露了许多信息。3. English adverbs and prepositions transformed into Chinese verbsThe most common modifiers of verbs are adverbial phrases and prepositional ones which describe manner and time. Thus they also have the property of verbs. Here are some examples:(1) She opened the window to let fresh air in.她把窗子打开，让新鲜空气进来。(2) He was away before dawn.他是黎明前岀发的。(3) The people are with him.人民拥护他。(4) He came to my home for help.他来到我家，请求帮助。(5) The price of fruit is down.水果的价格跌了。B. Transformation into Chinese Nouns1. English verbs transformed into Chinese nounsSome verbs in English are derived from nouns, but it is often hard to express with the corresponding verbs in Chinese. In addition, some other English verbs with inflectional affixes like -d, and -ingare also transformed into nouns when translated into Chinese. Here are more examples:(1) This kind of behavior characterizes the criminal mind.这种举止是罪犯的心理特征。(2) Our age is witnessing a profound political change.我们的时代是深刻政治变革的见证。(3) Most U.S. spy satellites are designed to burn up in the earths atmosphere after completing their missions.美国绝大多数间谍卫星，按其设计，是在完成使命后，在大气层中焚毁。(4) He wishesto become an engineer.他的愿望适当工程师。2. English adjectives and adverbs transformed into Chinese nounsWhen the definite article occurs before some specialadjectives, these adjectives can be transformed into nouns such as poor, young, richand blind. They refer to a particular kind of persons. Moreover, in order to make the translated versions smooth and clear and correspond to Chinese expression habits, we often transform English adjectives and adverbs into Chinese nouns. The following are some examples:(1) They did their best to help the sick and the wounded.他们尽了最大的努力帮助病号和伤员。(2) He was eloquent and elegantbut soft.他有口才、有风度，但性格软弱。(3) It is officially announced that China has successfully launched her fist manned spaceship. 官方宣布，中国已经成功的实现了载人航天。(4) He is physically weak but mentally sound.他身体虽弱，但思想健康。C. Transformation into Adjectives1. English nouns transformed into Chinese adjectivesEnglish nouns contain a much wider meaning and are more frequently used than Chinese nouns. Some abstract nouns are closely related to their corresponding adjectives in meaning such as necessity, stupidity and depth. In order to make our translation read more natural and conformable to the expression habits of the Chinese language, we can transform nouns into Chinese adjectives. Additionally, some nouns after indefinite articles are as predicative in sentences which can also be transformed into Chinese adjectives. The following are some examples:(1) This issue is of vital importance.这个问题至关重要。(2) Our performance was a success.我们的演出很成功。(3) The pallor of her face indicated clearly how she was feeling at the moment.她苍白的脸色清楚地表明了她那时的情绪。(4) He is a perfect stranger to the operation of the sophisticated instrument panel. 他对复杂仪表板的操作还是十分陌生的。2. English adverbs transformed into Chinese adjectivesUsually, we transform some English verbs into Chinese nouns in the process of translation. The common modifiers of English verbs are adverbs which are often transformed into Chinese adjectives. Look at the following examples:(1) This film impressed him deeply.这部电影给了他深刻的印象。(2) The President had prepared meticulously for his journey.总统为这次出访作了土分周密的准备。(3) The sun affects tremendouslyboth the mind and body of a man.太阳对人的身体和精神都有巨大的影响。(4) The pilot routinelyradioed another agent on the ground.飞行员跟另一个地勤人员进行了例行的无线电路联络。D. Transformation into Adverbs1. English adjectives transformed into Chinese adverbsThe adjectives usually modify the nouns in English, so when English nouns are transformed into Chinese verbs, the English adjectives are often transformed into Chinese adverbs. Such examples are as follows:(1) This is sheer nonsense.这完全是胡说。(2) We must make full use of exiting technical equipment.我们必须充分利用现有的技术设备。(3) We have made a careful study of the soil properties in that region.我们仔细地研究了那个地区的土壤特性。2. English nouns transformed into Chinese adverbsSometimes we often transform English nouns into Chinese adverbs in order to make the versions correspond to Chinese usual practices. Some abstract nouns can be transformed into Chinese adverbs, such as freedom, goodness and honesty. The following are some examples:(1) Fish have an instinct for water.鱼生来就会水。(2) That old lady had the kindness to show me the way.那个老太太善意地给我指了路。(3) We have known a similar pastof humiliation from imperialist powers.在过去，我们同样都遭受到了帝国主义列强的凌辱和剥削。Now, we have seen some certain regularity in the transformation from above examples. Either English or Chinese has its own unique characteristics of means of expression. Obviously, Chinese verbs are often used, while in English nouns are widely used. Therefore, we usually transform English nouns into Chinese verbs in order to make the translation more idiomatic. But the transformation does not occur at random, it must obey the objective rules. All in all, transformation of parts of speech is of vital importance in English- Chinese translation and makes a more natural and smooth translation.IV. Problems and Countermeasures Concerned in Transformation of Parts of SpeechThe way of thinking and expressing is quite different between Chinese native speakers and their English counterpart. Thus transformation is necessary for translating from English to Chinese or vice versa. There are some problems about transformation that we should pay much attention to it carefully.1. Avoidance of direct transformationInfluenced by the native tongue, Chinese learners often use the correct meaning of words to make the translation regardless of parts of speech. Here are more examples in which Chinese learners often make mistakes.(1) Is it truth that he is very ill?(2) I think his grandfather is died.(3) This is a great happy.(4) We learn that we should not anxious to the results.(5) The little girl sang beautiful.The above examples indicate the common errors in Chinese learners. They confuse the parts of speech in translation. So the translators should avoid direct transformation without considering the parts of speech. Otherwise, the good translation will lose.2. Avoidance of the native tongue expressionEach tongue has its characteristics in linguistic expression as well as lexical structure. Words in Chinese have no conjugation at all, so Chinese grammar relation is recessive. By comparison, English words are dominant with a lot of conjugations. English words often have some affixes such as -less, -ness and ing. English words have word-forming patterns, but Chinese learners are not good at word-form variation. They often use the way of Chinese practices to express the English sentences. For instance,请认真记笔记”，some Chinese learners translate it into “Please carefully write your notes. It completely corresponds to Chinese expression habits. But there is a more idiomatic expression Take carefUl notes, please.There are some countermeasures to solve the above problems. Firstly, when learners study new words, they should know parts of speech of the words and remember some makers, such as ful, -less and -ly. The special makers easily help you distinguish parts of speech. Secondly, learn the sentence structure to understand that the different parts of speech have different positions. Thirdly, combine transformation of parts of speech and transformation of clauses to reduce the influence of the native tongue effectively. For example,因为查询考试成绩，天天有很多学生来 教务科办公室” We can transform the adverbial clause into attributive clause, so it can be translated into “A lot of students come to the Teaching Affairs Office who want to know the results of their examination.V. ConclusionFrom what we have mentioned above, it is very clear that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. Through all the above illustrative examples, this thesis is trying to make a relatively comprehensive transformation rules between different parts of speech. There are four basic ways to transform parts of speech in rendering that English words can generally be transformed into Chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. These ways must be used by translators in the process of translation. In addition, we take some problems concerned in making transformation between parts of speech and give some suggestions. It is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. Whether it there are many other accurate ways, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices. We deserve to study the ways as long as they are based on the faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance and of great benefit to translation.Works CitedA.T.Tytler. Essay on the principles of Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.Christina, Schaffner. Translation and Norms, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.Eugene, A. Nida, & Charles, R. Taber.The Theory and Practice of Translation, Shanghai: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.Larry, A. Samovar, & Richard, Porter. Communication between Cultures： 3rd Edition. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.Roger, Bell. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.