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论述题：1分别说明社会保险、社会救助、社会福利和社会优抚的原则。P28-29 在社会保障体系内部，各种项目各有不同的原则。（一）社会救助的原则社会救助的原则包括选择性原则、人道主义原则、受助权利原则、最低生活原则。社会救助的对象中限于贫困和受灾人群。救助贫困和受灾人群是政府的责任，也是受助者应该享受的权利。（二）社会保险的原则社会保险的原则是权利与义务相结合原则、统筹互济原则。社会保险的对象主要是在业雇员。国家建立社会保险制度是为了实现保险对象之间的团结互助，同舟共济，共同承受等风险。是否享受保险取决于是否参加保险；享受保险的水平高低一般与受保人承担保险缴费的多少相关，这就是“权利与义务相结合”。（三）社会福利的原则社会福利的原则是普遍性与选择性相结合的原则。它采用的是普遍性与选择性相结合的原则，或者普惠大众，人人共享；或者选择性地对一部分人锦上添花。（四）社会优抚的原则社会优抚的原则是权利与义务相结合的原则，励军荣军的原则。社会优抚一方面是为了激励军人保家卫国，另一方面也是军人的权利。为军人建立社会优抚制度是政府的责任，也是一般国民对军人的应有回报。通过物质激励和荣誉激励，会鼓励青年人参军报国的积极性，增强军人参军报国的荣誉感。2试述养老保险制度模式。P76-77 世界各国的养老保险制度模式分类如下：（一）福利国家型 福利国家型养老保险制度以瑞典为典型。在福利国家型养老保险制度下：保险覆盖全民，遵循“普惠制”原则，养老基金主要由政府和企业负责，国民到达养老年龄（无论是否工作过）都可以得到养老金，因此根据普惠制原则民发放的养老金也被称为“普遍年金”。（二）社会保险型社会保险型养老保险制度以德国为典型。在社会保险型养老保险制度下：保险覆盖在业雇员，而不是全民；政府、企业、个人三方共同缴费，保险待遇与保险缴费相关联。（三）国家保险型国家保险型养老保险制度曾经在社会主义计划经济国家中实行，以苏联和改革前的中国为代表。在国家保险型养老保险制度下：保险覆盖在业职工，个人不缴费，国家制度政策，用人单位代表国家实施保险，保险待遇高低与工资高低紧密关联。（四）个人储蓄型个人储蓄型养老保险制度以新加坡和智利为典型。在个人储蓄型养老保险制度下：保险覆盖在业雇员；企业和个人缴纳保险费。 以上四种制度模式类型划分是很粗略的。3试述医疗保险制度的几种模式。P103-106 因为各国经济发展水平等不同，其所采用的医疗保险制度实践也有很大差异。世界上现行的医疗保险制度大致可分为：（一）国民健康保险模式国民健康医疗保险又称国家保障型医疗保险或全民医疗保险，是指国家为全体社会成员提供近乎免费的医疗服务。保险资金来自于政府的税收，公民看病时不需要支付医疗费用。英国、加拿大、瑞典等国家所实行的全民医疗保险制度都属于国民健康保险模式。英国最早实行全民医疗保险，而且是该模式的代表者和推广者。（二）社会医疗保险模式社会医疗保险由国家和政府通过立法强制实施，雇主和雇员分担保险费，当社会成员发生疾病风险需要救治时，社会为其提供医疗服务和医疗费用补偿，而且个人也需要承担一定比例的医疗费用支出。社会医疗保险更强调市场化和个人责任。该模式的主要特点是：经一，多方共担医疗保险费；第二，采用第三方支付方式；第三，个人承担一定比例的医疗费用。德国是世界上建立社会保险制度的国家。（三）商业医疗保险模式商业医疗保险模式通常是指由市场筹集医疗保险基金和提供医疗服务，整个保险程序和商业保险一致，政府会通过相应的立法予以规范和监督。商业医疗保险是完全的市场化运作。美国是商业医疗保险模式的典型代表，以私人商业医疗保险为主。商业医疗保险模式的优点在于充分发挥了市场机制的效率，政府财政负担较小，使该模式缺乏社会公平性。（四）合作医疗保险模式合作医疗保险以社区为基础，它主要存在于中国农村。由于其覆盖人数众多，与覆盖城镇职工和居民的“社会医疗保险模式”一起，共同构成中国的医疗保险制度。（五）强制储蓄医疗保险模式强制储蓄医疗保险一反保险中的大数法则，不强调“风险共担、互助共济”，它强制社会成员以家庭为单位进行“纵向”筹资，本着自我负责的精神为一生中可能发生的疾病风险作准备。国家立法强制雇主和雇员双方或者雇员单方面建立雇员个人医疗保险储蓄账户即个人账户，以新加坡为典型。强制储蓄医疗保险模式缺乏社会公平性，甚至没有“互助共济”的特征，完全靠个人能力疾病风险，非常不利于低收入群体。以上五种医疗保险制度模式的划分是很粗略的。4社会保障管理应该遵循哪些原则：P357-359 社会保障管理的一般原则：（一）服务至上原则社会保障管理涉及成千上万国民的基本生活问题，享受社会保障的人通常都是社会弱势群体。所以，社会保障管理应该按照“以人为本”的精神，将社会保障对象的利益入在第一位。要求社会保障管理部门确保社会保障受益人的社会保障待遇。（二）公开、公正和效率原则社会保障制度的运行应当是透明的，社会保障管理变必然要遵循公开、公正与效率的原则。首先，社会保障管理机构及其职责应当通过社会成员熟知的途径与方式加以公开化，以便让大众接受必要的社会保障政策信息。其次，管理机构在社会保障运行中既是责任者，更是社会保障制度公正性的维护者，并对社会保障纠纷采取不偏不倚的态度。再次，社会保障的行政管理必须讲究效率。这是因为：社会保障待遇的发放关系到老百姓的基本生活，社会保障基金的所有权属于所有人。（三）属地管理原则社会保障它通过在一事实上区域内设置实施机构来完成项目实施任务，因此，各国的社会保障事务通常都是在国家法律、法规的统一规范下，由各地区组织实施并由各地区的社会保障管理机构负责管理与监督。（四）与相关系统协调一致原则社会保障是一个独立运行的系统，但它与其它社会系统和经济系统却存在不可分割的联系。在运行中需要与其他系统保持协调一致。在社会保障管理系统内部，不同的管理机构亦需要在明确职责、分工负责的基础上保持某种程度的合作。5试述中国农村社会保障有哪些功能？P325-326 我国农村社会保障制度已经发挥并交继续发挥巨大的功能。从总体上看，农村社会保障制度的功能主要体现在以下两个方面：（一） 经济功能 收入补偿功能：是指当农村社会成员遇到各种自然或社会风险时， 国家和社会通过社会保障制度安排为其提供基本的生活资料和服务，使其维持一定的收入水平，以保障其基本的生存权利。在农村社会救助和农村扶贫开发制度中，国家和社会成为制度的实施主体，可以说，农村社会保障制度具有显著的收入补偿功能。 保障农村劳动力再生产功能一方面，农村社会保障通过对农村居民的收入进行补偿，维持了一定的生活水平以更好地繁衍后代，另一方面，农村社会福利制度中的教育福利等制度安排，保障了农村居民接受一定的科学文化教育，提高了农村劳动力的综合素质。（二） 社会功能 维持社会公平的功能长期以来，中国的经济社会发展呈现出显著的城乡二元特征，使得农村经济社会的发展远远落后于城镇，致使城乡居民收入差距较大。农村社会保障制度安排，通过国民收入的分配和再分配，使一部分社会财富从城镇转移到农村，以弥补市场机制的缺陷，缩小的城乡差距，有利于逐步实现社会公平。 促进社会稳定的功能一方面可以保障农村社会成员享受基本的生存权利，同时也使其能够分享经济发展和社会进步的成果。只有农村社会稳定，农村居民安居乐业，才能充分调动广大农村居民的生产积极性和创造性，促进健康发展。6描述我国最低生活保障制度的管理体制。P237-243 一最低生活保障制度（一）最低生活保障管理1）.最低生活保障对象管理：无生活来源，无劳动能力又无法定赡养人、抚养人或者抚养费，以及虽有法定赡养人、抚养人或者抚养人但其无赡养、抚养或者扶养能力的城市居民。在职人员领取工资（最低工资）及离退休人员领取离退休费，家庭月人均收入低于城市低保标准的城市居民。下岗职工进入再就业服务中心期间，月人均收入仍低于城市低保标准的城市居民。失业人员领取失业保险金期间，家庭月人均收入低于城市低保标准的城市居民。2）.最低生活保障资金管理最低生活保障的资金主要有两个来源，即财政拨款和社会捐赠。最低生活保障的保障资金主要由地方财政负责。各省市对最低生活保障资金的解决主要采取分级负担解决资金筹措问题。3.）最低生活保障的工作程序工作程序主要有以下几个步骤：申请。申请人要向户口所在地的街道办事处、乡镇政府提出申请。调查。审核、审批。发放。动态管理。行政复议和行政诉讼。4.）最低生活保障管理体制最低生产保障制度实行地方各级人民政府负责制，实行的是政府领导，民政部门和社会各界相互配合的管理体制。国务院民政部门负责全国最低生活保障的管理工作。（二）最低生活保障标准计算方法目前最低生活保障标准的计算方法主要有以下几种。1. 市场菜篮子法2. 恩格尔系数法：上海市采用的恩格尔系数计算公式是：最低生活保障标准（基本营养所需食品消费量各种食品等混合平均单价）恩格尔系数低收入家庭居民月食品费用恩格尔系数3. 收入比例法4. 其他方法（三）最低生活保障的家计调查1. 家计调查的主管机构由民政部及其下属各部门主管。街道是管辖基层居民保障工作，区财政部门负责最低生活保障资金的核拨工作，并对最低生活保障资金的使用情况进行检查。2. 家计调查的内容采用资源调查型，需要对收入及财产进行认定。3. 家计调查式主要有入户调查、邻里走访、信函索证三种。Editors note: Judson Jones is a meteorologist, journalist and photographer. He has freelanced with CNN for four years, covering severe weather from tornadoes to typhoons. Follow him on Twitter: jnjonesjr (CNN) - I will always wonder what it was like to huddle around a shortwave radio and through the crackling static from space hear the faint beeps of the worlds first satellite - Sputnik. I also missed watching Neil Armstrong step foot on the moon and the first space shuttle take off for the stars. Those events were way before my time.As a kid, I was fascinated with what goes on in the sky, and when NASA pulled the plug on the shuttle program I was heartbroken. Yet the privatized space race has renewed my childhood dreams to reach for the stars.As a meteorologist, Ive still seen many important weather and space events, but right now, if you were sitting next to me, youd hear my foot tapping rapidly under my desk. Im anxious for the next one: a space capsule hanging from a crane in the New Mexico desert.Its like the set for a George Lucas movie floating to the edge of space.You and I will have the chance to watch a man take a leap into an unimaginable free fall from the edge of space - live.The (lack of) air up there Watch man jump from 96,000 feet Tuesday, I sat at work glued to the live stream of the Red Bull Stratos Mission. I watched the balloons positioned at different altitudes in the sky to test the winds, knowing that if they would just line up in a vertical straight line we would be go for launch.I feel this mission was created for me because I am also a journalist and a photographer, but above all I live for taking a leap of faith - the feeling of pushing the envelope into uncharted territory.The guy who is going to do this, Felix Baumgartner, must have that same feeling, at a level I will never reach. However, it did not stop me from feeling his pain when a gust of swirling wind kicked up and twisted the partially filled balloon that would take him to the upper end of our atmosphere. As soon as the 40-acre balloon, with skin no thicker than a dry cleaning bag, scraped the ground I knew it was over.How claustrophobia almost grounded supersonic 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