测绘学基础毕业论文外文翻译

英文文献翻译：Basic surveying and mappingIntroductionThe concept and classification of the first section surveying and mapping (Surveying and Mapping; SM)A concept, surveying and mapping (Surveying and Mapping; SM)Surveying and mapping is the acquisition of geographic information (the determination, collection of Italy), a scientific processing, description and application. Its contents include: Study on determination, describing the shape of the earth, size, gravity, surface morphology and their various changes, determine the natural and artificial objects, artificial facilities spatial location and attributes, made of various map (including topographic map) and the establishment of information system. Modern surveying and mapping techniques have been applied to some other planets and the moon.The concept of geographical information (Geographical information; GI): reflect the characteristics of geographical system and its factors, various information dynamic, rhythm, rhythm, cycle and distribution. The general is the image of geographic information, digital geographic information and file information. A variety of geographic information of modern geography through observation, statistics, document retrieval, aerial survey, ground measurements, the aircraft measurement for information on the surface of the earth and space condition.The concept of geographic information system (Geographical Information System; GIS): supported by computer hardware, all kinds of geographic information according to the spatial distribution, in a certain format input, storage, retrieval, update, display, graphics and comprehensive analysis of the technology system. It contains data, symbol and image etc.The concept of Measurement Science (Surveying): surveying is the study of how to determine the location of the ground plane points and elevation, the topography of theearths surface and other information of Surveying and mapping (with map and topographic map), and study the earths size and shape of a science.Determination of the concept refers to the use of measuring instruments and methods, through the measurement and calculation, obtain the measured data of the ground point, or to the topography of the earths surface according to a certain proportion shrinking as topography, for scientific research, the national economic construction and planning design.Survey and design concept is the planning drawing design good building, structure location (position and Gao Cheng) with the measurement instrument and the measurement method on ground calibration as the basis for construction. Two, surveying and mapping science research objectObject mapping studies, usually is the surface of the earth (including land and sea) and fixtures. With the continuous development of science and technology, the research object will be extended to the distant space and other planets. Three, the task of Surveying and mappingTypically, surveying and mapping tasks are divided into three aspects as follows:1, the surface of the earth or the earths surface shape and size of the local region mapping topographic maps - from the field to the drawings (mapping or determination)2, the drawing design good engineering building, the instrument and method calibration to the field - from drawings to the field (setting or setting).3, under construction and completion of the building deformation monitoring, regular - deformation observation.Such as Frances Barcelona outburst of an arch dam, the dam is an example of the lack of necessary observation and caused great disaster. The dam was built in 1954, destroyed in 1959 December. The dam burst, store flood rushing downstream water level rise, instant. Depth of 7 - 15 meters, width of a kilometer to 70 km / h speed down speed, lasted 45 minutes, downstream 10 km Ferre eggplant, city in ruins before the dam, 8 kilometers a barracks 500 soldiers died. To this end, the French government set up a commission check. According to the survey said: because thedam slope local rock weak, the abutment inhomogeneous deformation and landslide caused by the dam burst. Set no observation instruments during the dam operation, building on the lack of regular inspection and observation of deformation before failure, failed to fully understand the dam reinforcement remedial measures, did not make the corresponding etc, is one of the most important causes of dam failure.The investigation that the dam failure lesson of the main is dam observation shall be equipped with a sufficient number of personnel and equipment, systematic observation of dam.So far, in water conservancy technology theory, is also very difficult to solve the problems in water conservancy project all, such as the stress state and stability calculation, the flow state, hydrological and engineering geological conditions.However, the modern practice of observation has to a great extent can make up for its shortcomings. For example, a dam dynamic, basically be by the dam external deformation observation, internal (stress, strain and so on) observation and seepage observation three timely, fully tested, and found problems in a timely manner. The deformation observation of dam in the world of maintenance, and some projects together, are put in the first place.In fact, the vast majority of the destruction of the dam, dont happen overnight, but there is a process from quantitative change to qualitative change. So, even if the dam has some defects, inappropriate factors or design theory, geological survey and construction quality, if through carefully observation, inspection, can be timely discovered and remedy.Frances Barcelona arch dam after the crash, the deformation of dam observation work more attention, since the international conference to dam deformation observation of dam as an important content included in the agenda, and published a large number of observation data. The meeting in many countries (Committee) or government, to monitor reservoir or dam safety and much stricter regulations. Four, surveying and mapping science classificationSurveying and mapping science as a subject, can be divided into several independent discipline:1, geodesy (geodesy): is the space in a certain time reference system, measurement and description of the earth and other planetary bodies of a discipline. Another definition is studied in larger regional or global 3D geodetic control network, gravity network, determination of the earths shape, size and the earths gravity field and its variation theory, technology and method of the subject. The main contents are: triangulation, traverse survey, leveling, astronomical measurement, gravity measurement, satellite geodesy, very long baseline interferometry, inertial measurement,ellipsoidal geodesy, the earth shape theory and surveying adjustment etc.geodesy Knowledge Window geodesy is one of the oldest Applied Earth Science, the classical definition is: measurement and description of the surface of the earth science. With the development of space geodesy theory and techniques (GPS, VLBI, SLR etc.), geodesy, break through the traditional limitations of time and space, enter the new stage of the development of modern geodesy, which is defined as: accurate determination of the three-dimensional position, shape, size, the surface of the earth and its external gravity field, and monitoring and interpretation over time they change science. So geodesy from engineering application to fundamental earth science change, become one of the frontier subjects to promote the development of earth sciences.VR: Virtual Reality，虚拟现实。VR: Virtual Reality, virtual reality.GPS：Global Positioning System, 全球定位系统。GPS:Global Positioning System, global positioning system.GIS： Geographical Information System, 地理信息系统。GIS:Geographical Information System, geographic information system.RS：Remote Sensing, 遥感（本意是 “遥远的感觉 ”）Remote sensing (RS:Remote Sensing, is intended to feel distant)VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry, 甚长基线干涉测量。VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry, very long baseline interferometry.SLR：Satellite Laser Ranging,卫星激光测距。 SLR:Satellite Laser Ranging, satellite laser ranging.The main task of the modern geodetic surveying are: 1. Establish and maintain the time-varying 3D high precision geodetic coordinate system; changes in the fine structure of precise determination and Study on the shape, size and the earth gravity field and with time; the monitoring and interpretation, surface crust (including marine) various geodynamic phenomena.From the above definition, the main task of the modern geodetic surveying from surface geodetic classic development of space geodesy modern science, modern geodesy and modern geodesy. Especially the development of space geodesy, will lead the development of the subject.And the status of modern geodesy: fast, accurate land survey, planning to provide a variety of scale topographic map, provide accurate geodetic data for the exploitation of marine resources of land. in the ground, space, marine running on all the traffic tools to provide accurate, real-time navigation and positioning. Will play an important role in safeguarding for space science development, national defense construction. In order to earthquake, flood, landslide, debris flow, El Nino and other natural disasters, development forecast, forecast. Play an active role in disaster prevention, disaster reduction, disaster relief. The accurate determination of the motion of the plates, the pole shift, the earths rotation rate, and gives the geodynamic interpretation, make a contribution to the study of earth science. A large amount of information and Digital Earth are related to geographic information, these related with geographical information, must be based on the same reference frame, theory and method for setting up the frame of reference can only adopt the modern geodesy. Therefore. The modern geodesy is the support of the subject construction of Digital Earth spatial data framework.Thus, the modern geodesy in peoples daily life, economic construction, National Science and technology development, national security and other aspects will play a positive role, will be the era of knowledge and information era, the comprehensive national strength of the new growth point, the armys role in the play in the richcountries will be more and more. - - geodesy Knowledge Window. Bulletin of Surveying and mapping in 2001 eighth page twenty-first.2, photogrammetry and remote sensing (photogrammetry and remote sensing): geometric and physical information on the electromagnetic wave sensor acquisition target, shape, size, spatial location to determine the target, interpretation of its properties and relations, and a discipline graphics, image and digital form theory and technology.The subject was mainly used for topographic mapping. With the development of Surveying and mapping technology and remote sensing technology, photography and research objects become more and more diverse, the theory of remote sensing camera today in many scientific fields.3, engineering surveying (Engineering Surveying): Research on the construction and development of natural resources in the survey and design, construction, completion and operation management of various stages of control surveying, topographic surveying, construction lofting, deformation monitoring and establish corresponding information system theory and technology discipline.The main contents are: engineering control network establishment, topographic mapping, construction layout, equipment installation, completion of measurement, measurement of deformation observation and repair maintenance measurement theory, technology and method.The main task of engineering surveying is:Firstly, in the planning and design phases need to be designed: Surveying and mapping project area topographic map, for planning design.Second, in the construction process: need to drawing design good building design according to the calibration data to the field (this is called survey, also called lofting), and detection of construction quality in the construction process, to ensure the accuracy of Engineering construction.Third, the completion of works in: the need for completion acceptance measurement.Completion of measurement results are mainly as follows: the completion generallayout, classification map, profile and detail coordinates, elevation list. They are the engineering alteration, expansion and maintenance of necessary information. during the project operation management: for large engineering and precision engineering need to regularly deformation monitoring, deformation law in order to master the engineering building, to ensure the engineering safety operation; in addition, also need to repair maintenance and measurement.Engineering survey according to the object construction is divided into: architecture, water conservancy, railway, highway, bridge, tunnel, mine, geology, city, nationaldefence engineering survey.4, Cartography (Cartography): also known as cartography or cartography, it is the study of map information transmission, spatial cognition, projection principle, generalization and map design, compile, copy and the establishment of map database theory and technology subject. Generally includes the preparation of maps, map projection (mathematical cartography), map decoration map making and printing branch.5, marine surveying and mapping (marine surveying and charting): Study on marine positioning, determination of the marine geoid and mean sea level, sea and sea surface topography, gravity, magnetic, the marine environment and other natural and social information of geographical distribution, and the preparation of a variety of chart theory and technology subject. The main research within the scope of control survey, topographic shoreline, bathymetry measurements various measurement theory, technology and method.6, cadastral surveying and mapping (cadastral surveying and mapping): investigation and determination of cadastral elements, preparation, establishment and management of cadastral map cadastral information system technology.7, instrument of Surveying and mapping (instrument of Surveying and mapping): the development of data acquisition, processing, and output equipment and device manufacturing as the work of Surveying and mapping design discipline.测绘学基础绪论第一节测绘学的概念与分类一、测绘学的概念 (Surveying and Mapping; SM)测绘学是研究地理信息的获取（测定、采集之意）、处理、描述和应用的一门科学。其内容包括 : 研究测定、描述地球的形状、大小、重力场、地表形态以及它们的各种变化， 确定自然和人工物体、 人工设施的空间位置及属性， 制成各种地图（含地形图） 和建立有关信息系统。 现代测绘学的技术已部分应用于其它行星和月球上。地理信息的概念 (Geographical information; GI)：反映地理系统及其因素的特征、动态、节奏、韵律、周期及分布状况的各种信息。一般有图象地理信息、数字地理信息和文件信息等。现代地理学通过观察、统计、文件检索、航空测量、地面测量、宇宙航行器测量等手段来获取有关地球表面及空间状况的各种地理信息。地理信息系统的概念（ Geographical Information System; GIS ）：在计算机软硬件支持下，把各种地理信息按照空间分布，以一定的格式输入、存储、检索、更新、显示、制图和综合分析的技术系统。 它包含数据、符号及各种图象等。测量学的概念（Surveying ）：测量学是研究如何测定地面点的平面位置和高程，将地球表面的地形及其它信息测绘成图（含地图和地形图） ，以及研究地球的形状和大小等的一门科学。测定的概念是指运用测量仪器和方法， 通过测量和计算， 获得地面点的测量数据，或者把地球表面的地形按一定比例缩绘成地形图， 供科学研究、 国民经济建设和规划设计使用。测设的概念是将规划图纸上设计好的建筑物、 构造物的位置（平面位置和高程）用测量仪器和测量方法在地面上标定出来做为施工的依据。二、测绘学的研究对象测绘学研究的对象， 通常情况下是地球表面 （包括陆地和海洋） 及其固定附着物。随着人类科学技术的不断发展， 其研究对象将拓展到遥远的宇宙空间及其它星体。三、测绘学的任务通常情况下，测绘学的任务分为如下三个方面：、将地球表面或地球表面局部区域的形状和大小测绘成地形图由实地到图纸（测图或称测定）、将图纸上设计好的工程建筑物， 采用一定的仪器和方法标定到实地 由图纸到实地（放样或称测设） 。、对正在建设中及竣工后的建筑物，进行定期的形变监测变形观测。例如法国马尔巴塞拱坝的溃决， 是大坝缺乏必要的观测检查而造成巨大灾害的实例之一。该坝建成于 1954 年，破坏于 1959 年 12 月。拱坝溃决后，库内洪水汹涌奔腾，下游水位瞬即上涨。水深为 7 15 米，宽达一公里之巨流以 70 公里小时的速度向下飞驰， 历时 45 分钟，坝下游 10 公里处的费雷茄斯城变成废墟，坝前公里处一兵营 500 名士兵全部死亡。 为此，法国政府成立了检查委员会。根据调查认为： 由于拱坝岸坡局部岩石软弱， 使拱座产生不均匀变形和滑坡而导致全坝溃决。 该坝运转期间没有设置观测仪器， 对建筑物缺乏定期检查观测，大坝破坏前的变形情况未能充分及时了解， 没有作出相应的加固补救措施等，也是垮坝的重要原因之一。调查认为该坝失事主要的教训之一是“水坝应配备足够数量的观测人员和仪器，对坝进行系统的观测” 。到目前为止， 在水利技术的理论方面， 还很难解决所有的水利工程问题， 例如应力状态和稳定计算，水流流动状态，水文及工程地质条件等。但是，现代观测实践却在很大程度上可以弥补其不足之处。 例如对于某水坝的动态， 基本上可由大坝外部变形观测、内部（应力、应变等）观测及渗透观测等三方面及时、全面地得到检查， 并及时发现问题。 其中变形观测在世界各国的大坝维护中， 则与某些项目一起，都放在首要位置。事实上，绝大多数水坝的破坏， 并非突然发生， 而有一个从量变到质变的过程。所以，即使水坝存在一定缺陷，或设计理论、地质判断和施工质量等方面有不妥因素，若通过认真仔细的观测、检查，是可以及时发现而加以补救的。法国马尔巴塞拱坝失事后， 水坝变形观测工作更引起了重视， 自后各届国际大坝会议均把水坝变形观测作为一个重要内容列入议题， 并发表了大量观测技术资料。许多国家的大坝会议（委员会）或政府，都对监视水库或大坝的安全制定了更严格的条例。四、测绘学的学科分类测绘学作为一门科学，可分为若干独立的学科：1 、大地测量学 (geodesy) ：是在一定的时间 - 空间参考系统中，测量和描绘地球及其他行星体的一门学科。 另定义是研究在较大区域或全球建立三维大地控制网、重力网，测定地球形状、大小和地球重力场及其变化的理论、技术和方法的学科。主要研究内容有：三角测量、导线测量、水准测量、天文测量、重力测量、卫星大地测量、甚长基线干涉测量、惯性测量、椭球面大地测量、地球形状理论和测量平差等内容。 大地测量学知识窗 大地测量学是一门古老的应用地球科学，其古典定义是：“测定和描述地球表面的科学” 。随着空间大地测量理论和技术的发展（GPS、VLBI、SLR 等），大地测量学突破传统时空的局限，进入现代大地测量学发展新阶段，其定义为：精确测定点的三维位置，研究地球形状、大小、地表及其外部重力场，并监测和解释它们随时间变化的科学。从而使大地测量学从工程应用向基础地球科学转变，成为推动地球科学发展的前沿学科之一。VR: Virtual Reality，虚拟现实。GPS：Global Positioning System,全球定位系统。GIS：Geographical Information System,地理信息系统。RS：Remote Sensing,遥感（本意是“遥远的感觉” ）VLBI: Very Long Baseline Interferometry,甚长基线干涉测量。SLR：Satellite Laser Ranging,卫星激光测距。现代大地测量学的主要任务是：建立和维持随时间变化的高精度三维大地坐标系；精确地测定和研究地球形状、大小和外部重力场的精细结构及随时间的变化；监测和解释地壳、地表（包括海洋）发生的各种地球动力学现象。由以上定义可知， 现代大地测量学的主要任务已从经典的地表大地测量学发展成现代的空间大地测量学、 现代物理大地测量学和现代大地测量学。尤其是空间大地测量学的发展，将主导本学科的发展。现代大地测量学的作用和地位：快速、准确地为国土调查、规划提供各种比例尺的地形图，为陆地、海洋资源开发提供精确的大地测量数据。 为在地面、空间、海洋上运行的一切交通工具提供准确、 实时导航和定位。 将为空间科学发展、国防建设起重要保障作用。为地震、洪水、滑坡、泥石流、厄尔尼诺现象等各种自然灾害的发生、发展提供预测、预报。在防灾、减灾、救灾中发挥积极的作用。精确测定板块运动、 极移、地球自转速率，并给出地球动力学的解释，为研究地球科学作出贡献。“数字地球”中的大量信息都与地理信息有关，这些与地理信息有关的信息， 都必须建立在同一个参考框架上， 建立这个参考框架只能采用现代大地测量学的理论和方法。 因此。现代大地测量学是构建 “数字地球”空 间数据框架的支撑学科。由此可见，现代大地测量学在人们日常生活、经济建设、国家科技发展、国家安全等方面都将发挥积极的作用， 将是知识时代和信息时代综合国力的新增长点，在强军富国中发挥的作用将越来越大。 大地测量学知识窗 摘自测绘通报 2001 年第 8 期第 21 页。2、摄影测量与遥感学 (photogrammetry and remote sensing) ：研究利用电磁波传感器获取目标物的几何和物理信息， 用以测定目标物的形状、 大小、空间位置，判释其性质及相互关系， 并用图形、 图象和数字形式表达的理论和技术的一门学科。该学科原先主要用于测绘地形图。随着测绘技术和遥感技术的发展，摄影方式和研究对象的日趋多样，摄影遥感理论如今在许多科学领域中得到广泛应用。3、工程测量学 (engineeringsurveying)：研究工程建设和自然资源开发中在勘测设计、施工、竣工和运营管理各个阶段所进行的控制测量、地形测绘、施工放样、变形监测及建立相应信息系统的理论和技术的学科。主要内容有：工程控制网的建立、地形图测绘、施工放样、设备安装测量、竣工测量、变形观测和维修养护测量的理论、技术和方法。工程测量学的主要任务是：、在工程规划设计阶段： 需要测绘待设计的工程所在区域的地形图，以供规划设计使用。、在工程施工过程中： 需要将图纸上设计好的工程建筑物按照设计数据将其标定到实地（这项工作叫做测设，也叫做施工放样），以及在施工过程中进行施工质量检测，确保工程施工的准确性。、在工程竣工时：需要进行竣工验收测量。竣工测量成果主要是：竣工总平面图、分类图、断面图以及细部坐标、高程明细表。它们是工程改建、扩建和管理维护所必需的资料。、在工程运营管理期间： 对大型工程以及精密工程需要定期进行变形监测，以便掌握工程建筑物的变形规律, 确保工程运营安全 ; 另外 , 还需进行维修养护测量。工程测量按工程建设的对象分为：建筑、水利、铁路、公路、桥梁、隧道、矿山、地质、城市、国防工程测量等。4 、地图制图学 (cartography) ：亦称地图学或制图学， 它是研究地图的信息传输、空间认知、投影原理、制图综合和地图的设计、编制、复制以及建立地图数据库等的理论和技术的学科。 一般包括地图编制学、 地图投影学 ( 数学制图学 ) 、地图整饰和地图制印等分支。5、海洋测绘 (marine surveying and charting)：研究海洋定位、测定海洋大地水准面和平均海面、海底和海面地形、海洋重力、磁力、海洋环境等自然和社会信息的地理分布， 及编制各种海图的理论和技术的学科。主要研究上述范围内的控制测量、地形岸线测量、水深测量等各种测量工作的理论、技术和方法。6、地籍测绘（ cadastral surveying and mapping）：研究调查和测定地籍要素、编制地籍图、建立和管理地籍信息系统的技术的学科。7、测绘仪器（ instrument of surveying and mapping）：研制为测绘工作设计制造的数据采集、处理、输出等仪器和装置的学科。