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1 As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology. 第1页/共91页2 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Speech production(Speaker A)Speech perception(Speaker B)第2页/共91页3 Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.第3页/共91页4 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.第4页/共91页51. How speech sounds are made1.1 Speech organsMacMahon (1990: 7)第5页/共91页6MacMahon (1990: 7)第6页/共91页7MacMahon (1990: 7)第7页/共91页8Position of the vocal folds: voicelessRoca & Johnson (1999: 15)第8页/共91页9Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)Roca & Johnson (1999: 16)第9页/共91页10Position of the vocal folds: glottal stopRoca & Johnson (1999: 22)第10页/共91页111.2 The IPA In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897. 第11页/共91页12 One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. 第12页/共91页13 Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. These principles continue to be followed today. 第13页/共91页14 The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)第14页/共91页15第15页/共91页16第16页/共91页17第17页/共91页18第18页/共91页19第19页/共91页20第20页/共91页21第21页/共91页222. Consonants and vowels Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. 第22页/共91页23 The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.第23页/共91页242.1 Consonants In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. 第24页/共91页25 The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.第25页/共91页26 Stop (or Plosive) Oral & Nasal Fricative (Median) Approximant Lateral (Approximant) Trill Tap or Flap Affricate第26页/共91页27 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:nBilabialnLabiodentalnDentalnAlveolarnPostalveolarnRetroflexnPalatalnVelarnUvularnPharyngealnGlottal第27页/共91页282.2 Vowels Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. 第28页/共91页29Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918)Dark: IPARed: English第29页/共91页30第30页/共91页31 The problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels. To get out of this problem, the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the term semi-vowel is often used.第31页/共91页32 Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. The former are known as pure or monophthong vowels and the latter, vowel glides. If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. 第32页/共91页33 A double movement produces a triphthong, which is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption. They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa , found in English words like wire wa and tower ta. 第33页/共91页342.3 The sounds of English Received Pronunciation (RP) General American (GA) English consonants第34页/共91页35第35页/共91页36 The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop s voiceless alveolar fricative z voiced alveolar fricative第36页/共91页37English vowels第37页/共91页38第38页/共91页39 The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded). 第39页/共91页40 We can now describe the English vowels in this way: high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel第40页/共91页413. From phonetics to phonology Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb.第41页/共91页423.1 Coarticulation When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.第42页/共91页43 The fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol , as . 第43页/共91页44 p is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p. 第44页/共91页45 When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets . 第45页/共91页46第46页/共91页473.2 Phonemes Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. 第47页/共91页48 Crystal: Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs test Phonemes 第48页/共91页49第49页/共91页50 The word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts. By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.第50页/共91页51 Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic. In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic.第51页/共91页52 By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ( ). In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions. 第52页/共91页533.3 Allophones In English, p, ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. 第53页/共91页54/p/ p / s _ ph elsewhere This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. 第54页/共91页55 Velarization: clear l and dark l/ / _ V / V _ Think about tell and telling!第55页/共91页56 Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Free variants and free variation第56页/共91页574. Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features 4.1 Assimilation第57页/共91页58 Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 第58页/共91页59English Fricative Devoicing第59页/共91页60 /v/ f /z/ s etc. voiced fricative voiceless / _ voiceless Nasalization rule:-nasal +nasal / _ +nasal Dentalization rule:-dental dental / _ dental Velarization rule:-velar +velar / _ +velar第60页/共91页614.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule:第61页/共91页62Plurals in English第62页/共91页63第63页/共91页64第64页/共91页65 a. The appears after voiceless sounds. b. The appears after voiced sounds. c. The appears after sibilants. / / voice, C _ (Devoicing) / +sibilant _ (Epenthesis)第65页/共91页66Rule ordering第66页/共91页67The Elsewhere ConditionThe more specific rule applies first.第67页/共91页684.3 Distinctive features The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested.第68页/共91页69 Some of the major distinctions include consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced. The feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are +consonantal and all vowels consonantal. sonorant distinguishes between what we call obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being sonorant and others +sonorant. nasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.第69页/共91页70 These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by + and so voiced obstruents are marked +voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced.第70页/共91页71 The place features are not binary features they are divided up into four values: PLACE: Labial PLACE: Coronal PLACE: Dorsal PLACE: Radical They are often written in shorthand forms as Labialp Coronalp Dorsalp Radicalp第71页/共91页72Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant phonemes第72页/共91页73 A useful feature for consonants not found here is spread (for spread glottis), which distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless obstruents. Aspirated sounds are +spread and unaspirated sounds are spread. Now we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of features:第73页/共91页74 placesother in spread_s/spreadvoicecont第74页/共91页75Past tense forms in English stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged steamed, stunned, pulled played, flowed, studied wanted, located, decided, guided第75页/共91页76 The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as t when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, d when it ends with a voiced sound, and d when it ends with t or d. 第76页/共91页775. Suprasegmentals Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are: Syllable Stress Tone Intonation第77页/共91页785.1 The syllable structure Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k t第78页/共91页79 Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 第79页/共91页805.2 Stress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion. 第80页/共91页81 At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables. At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence.第81页/共91页82Changing English Stress PatternBecoming norm inTEGral coMMUNal forMIDable conTROVersyConsidered conservative INtegral COMMunal FORmidable CONtroversy第82页/共91页83 RPlaBORatoryDEBrisGARage GALABoratorydeBRISgaRAGERP vs. GA第83页/共91页84 VerbconVICTinSULTproDUCEreBEL NounCONvictINsultPROduceREbelV vs. N第84页/共91页85BLACKboardBLACKbirdblack BOARDblack BIRDCompound PhraseCompound vs. Phrase第85页/共91页86Primary vs. Secondary Stressepiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrialization第86页/共91页87Sentence Stress John bought a red car. JOHN bought a red car. John BOUGHT a red car. John bought a RED car. John bought a red CAR.第87页/共91页885.3 Intonation Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly. 第88页/共91页89 (Isnt her name Mary?) No / Jenny The old man didnt come / whereas the young man / did come and actually enjoyed himself I didnt do it第89页/共91页905.4 Tone第90页/共91页91感谢您的观看。第91页/共91页
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