语言学简明教程Review-simple

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,语言学概论,Review,毛艳文,2009. 5,1,Final Exam:,1. T or F.,2. Fill in the blanks.,3. Multiple choice.,4. Definition,(,Linguistics,language,Morphology,Semantics,Pragmatics,Syntax ),5. Answer the questions.,2,Chapter 1,1.Linguistics,can be defined as,the scientific study of language,.,2.Language,is a,system,of,arbitrary,vocal,symbols,used for,human,communication.,3.,Design features of language,Arbitrariness, Duality,Productivity (creativity) Cultural transmission,4,. According to Halliday, what are the,functions of Language,?,Ideational function,Interpersonal function,Textual function,3,5. General Linguistics (in theory):,Phonetics (,音位学,),Phonology (,音系学,),Morphology (,形态学,/,词形学,),Syntax (,句法学,),Semantics (,语义学,),Pragmatics (,语用学,),The above aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.,4,6.,Structure study of language (in 1916),De Saussure, the forefather of modern linguistics,Structuralism(30 years later),American linguist Bloomfield, the extreme of De Saussure,Functional linguistics T-G Grammar,England,Halliday,American,Chomsky,5,1.6 Some Distinctions in Linguistics (FAQ),(1),Description vs. Prescription,(2),Synchronic vs. Diachronic,(3),Speech vs. Writing,(4),Langue vs. Parole (by Saussure),(5),Competence vs. Performance (by Chomsky),(6),Modern linguistics vs. Traditional grammar,6,Chapter 2,1. three resonating cavities：,Oral cavity,Nasal cavity,Pharyngeal cavity (Pharynx),2. Classification of vowels,Monophthongs / pure / single vowels,Diphthongs or gliding vowels,7,The Description of English consonants,Place,manner,Voic-ing,Bila-,bial,Labio-,dental,Dental,Alveo-lar,Palatal,Velar,Glottal,Stops or plosives,VL, p , t , k ,VD, b , d , g ,Fricatives,VL,f,W, s ,F,VD, v ,T, z ,V,Affricates,VL,tF,VD,dV,Nasals,VD,m,n,N,Liquids,VD,l, r,h,Glides,VD,j,w,8,Chapter 3,1. Phoneme(,音素,),is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words in meaning.,2. Minimal pair,(,最小对立体,),when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.,beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat,How about beat and pit?,9,3. Contrastive distribution,对立分布,different or distinctive phonemes are in (Contrastive distribution) phonemic contrast, e.g.,/b/ and /p/ in b,I,t and p,I,t.,Complementary distribution,互补分布,allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p, as in pat and top.,10,Chapter 4,Morphology:,refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.,2. Morpheme (,词素,),-the minimal unit of meaning (not word),-Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.,3-morpheme boy+,ish,+ness,desir,(e)+,bl,(e)+,ity,4-morpheme gentle+man+,li,+ness, un+,desir,(e)+,abl,(e)+,ity,antidisestablishmentarianism,7-morpheme anti+,dis,+establish+,ment,+,ari,+an+ism(,反对解散国教主义,),11,3. Classification of Words,1. Word class,2. Grammatical words and lexical words,3. Closed-class words and open-class words,4. Variable and invariable words,4.Types of Morphemes,1. Free morpheme & bound morpheme,2. Inflectional morpheme and derivational,morpheme,12,5 . Word-formation,1. Inflection,2. Derivation,3. Conversion,4.,Compounding,5. Other means of creating new words,1) invention,2),blending,3) abbreviation,4) acronym,5) back-formation,6) onomatopoeia,7),borrowing,13,Chapter 5,1. Syntax (,句法,),:-a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.,14,2. Tree Diagram,The,new,product,has,passed,tests,with,flying,colors,.,15,Tree Diagram,The,new,product,has,passed,tests,with,flying,colors,.,Det adj N aux. V N Prep adj N,NP,NP,VP,VP,NP,PP,Pred.,Sentence,16,3. Semantic Roles of Clause Elements,Semantic Roles of noun phrases:,The boy,kicked,the ball.,agent patient,The ball,is kicked. (patient),The boy,has a ball. (beneficiary or recipient),The boy,likes the ball. (experiencer),17,Chapter 7,1. Semantics,is the study of the language linguistic meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences.,2. How Are Word Meanings Related?,1),Synonymy (,同义关系,),2),Antonymy (,反义关系,),3),Polysemy(,一词多义关系,),4),Homonymy (,同音同形异义关系,),5),Hyponymy(,上下义关系,),18,Antonymy,Gradable antonyms(,分级反义词,),-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g.,old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, ,Complementary antonyms(,互补反义词,),-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g.,alive-dead,male-female, ,Relational opposites(,关系对立反义词,),-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g.,husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, ,Reversives(,可逆性反义词,),-refer to the verbs denoting a reversive process.,e.g.advance-retreat, enter-leave,19,Homonymy,Homonymy,- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in,sound,or,spelling, or in both.,Homophone,(,同声异义词,) - when two words are identical in sound, e.g.,rain-reign(,统治,), night/knight(,骑士,), ,Homograph(,同型异义词,) - when two words are identical in spelling, e.g.,tear(n.,眼泪,)-tear(v.), lead(n.,铅,)-lead(v.), ,Complete homonym-,- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g.,bank, watch, ,20,Hyponymy,Hyponymy-the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.,Superordinate,(,上义词,):,the word which is more general in meaning.,Hyponyms,(,下义词,):,the word which is more specific in meaning.,Co-hyponyms,(,同级下义词,):,hyponyms of the same superordinate.,E.g. Superordinate:,flower,Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, ,Superordinate:,furniture,Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, ,21,3. Componential analysis (,语义成分分析,),- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: +concrete,+animate, +human, +adult, +male,Boy: +concrete, +animate, +human, -adult, +male,Woman:+concrete, +animate, +human, +adult, -male,Girl: +concrete, +animate, +human, -adult, -male,22,4. Sense relations between sentences,(1) X is synonymous with Y,(Equivalent),(2) X is inconsistent with Y,(Contradictory),(3) X entails Y,(Entailment),23,5. Pragmatics vs. semantics,Semantics,is the study of the language linguistic meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences.,Pragmatics,is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context.,24,Chapter 8,(1). Definition of writing,(2). Characteristics of writing,(3). The History of Writing,25,Chapter 9,1. Language Change in Various Aspects,Lexical Change,Phonological change,Grammatical Change,Semantic Change,26,2. Causes of Lexical Change,Politics,Science and Technology,Economic Development,Social Life,Environment,Heath and Fitness,Other Aspects,27,Supplement:,Modern linguistics vs. Traditional grammar,）Modern linguistics is descriptive while,traditional grammar is prescriptive. ） Modern linguistics regards the spoken,language as primary while traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word ） Modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.,28,2.,Speech act theory,According to Austin, a speaker while producing an utterance is in most cases performing three acts simultaneously:,a locutionary act(,言内行为）,an illocutionary act(,言外行为）,a perlocutionary act(,言后行为）,Classification of speech acts (1969),1 ) Assertives/representatives(,陈述),2 ),Directives(,指令),3 ),Commissives(,承诺),4 ),Expressives(,表达),5 ),Declarations(,宣布),29,30,a locutionary act(言内行为）,(action of making a sentence),the basic act of saying something, producing a meaningful linguistic expression, conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.,31,An illocutionary act(,言外行为）(,intention),The act performed in saying something; the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc.in producing the utterance by means of its communicative force. It reflects the speakers communicative intention in producing an utterance.,32,A perlocutionary act(,言后行为）（,effect),The act performed by or as a result of making the utterance, defined by the hearers reaction and varying with the context in which the utterance is made.,（If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about one of the students will go and get some chalk is perlocutionary.）,33,3. Predication analysis(,述谓结构分析）,(a way to analyze sentence meaning),1,）,. The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.,E.g. The man bit the dog. *The dog bit the man.,2,）,. Sentence meaning includes grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.,E.g. *The dog are chasing the cat.,*He gave the book me.,*We will went to Beijing tomorrow.,*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.,*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.,34,3,）,. Predication analysis proposed by the British linguist G. Leech,Predication,the basic unit, is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.,A predication consists of,argument(s),and,predicate,.,An,argument（,论元）,is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.,A,predicate（,谓语）,is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.,35,One-place predication,一位述谓结构,E.g. Tom smokes. (containing one argument),Two-place predication,两位述谓结构,E.g. Kids like apples. (containing two arguments),No-place predication,空位述谓结构,E.g. It is hot. ( containing no arguments),The predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, etc. and it may also be said to govern the arguments for it determines the number and the nature of the arguments.,36,4.,D-structure and S-structure,(,表层结构和深层结构）,A sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation which are commonly termed as deep structure and surface structure.,It is believed that phrase structure rules,with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.,37,E.g. How do you generate the sentence John was killed?,By transformations you arrive to the Surface Structure,：,The process of merging is this : 1) John + kill2) John + kill + inflection3) John + kill + inflection + someone(The original tree diagram has undergone transformations)As this is not possible, we cannot say it, pronounce it, phonology requires transformation, so movement occurs and we reach the Surface Structure.,Syntax level surface structureSemantic level deep structure,38,Deep structure, the underlying structure of meaning in any utterance, as opposed to the observable arrangement (the,surface structure,) in which it is presented. According to Chomsky, the deep structure of a sentence is its underlying semantic content, an abstraction decoded from the actual syntactic sequence of its surface structure,Thus the sentence,The mariner shot the albatross,differs in surface structure from,The albatross was shot by the mariner, but shares the same deep structure. The distinction is broadly similar to that between,content,and,form,.,39,For example, imagine two men at the corner of a street intersection talking：,The words we use to describe that become the surface structure, and those words may vary but they all convey the same deep structure.,1)Two men are at the street corner/intersection talking/speaking/having a conversation.2)At the street corner/intersection, two men are talking/speaking/having a conversation.3）Two men are talking/speaking/having a conversation at the street corner/intersection.,40,