ToxicEffectsofNitricOxide

,*,Click to edit Master title style,Click to edit Master text styles,Second level,Third level,Fourth level,Fifth level,Toxic Effects of Nitric Oxide,By Martha Gutierrez and Malerie Mock,1,Free Radical Toxicity,Free radicals are toxic to cells because of their reactivity with DNA, RNA, lipids, and proteins.,Free radical cytotoxicity causes:,Damage to cell membranes,Disruption of cellular activities, such as cellular respiration and protein synthesis,2,Host Defense and Toxicity,Human phagocytic cells produce free radicals to inhibit infectious bacteria.,Free radicals in high concentrations will exert toxic effects on all cells, including the cells that are producing the free radicals.,Source: Fang, 2004,3,Nitric Oxide (NO),NO is a free radical that is employed by macrophages for defense.,The toxicity of NO is attributed to its ability to bind to proteins that contain heme, iron, or copper, which will result in protein disruption.,In reaction with a protein, NO can either be oxidized (lose electrons) or reduced (gain electrons). This ability is responsible for the high reactivity of free radicals.,NO producing species are known as reactive nitrogen species (RNS).,Source: Winstedt and Wachenfeldt, 2000,4,Reaction of NO Inside Host Cell,NO reacts with superoxide inside a host cell to give a highly reactive intermediate product.,NO, ONOO- (peroxynitrite),ONOO- ONOOH (peroxynitrous acid),ONOOH is very unstable and a highly reactive oxidizing compound.,ONOOH oxidizes nearby bio-molecules.,Production of ONOOH is very rapid.,Source: Rogstam et al., 2007,5,Reaction of Nitrosonium Ion (NO+),NO+ reacts with different organic side groups, especially thiols.,Can also react with metals, lipids, and DNA.,NO+ reactivity will damage cell membranes and shut down cellular activities.,As a result of the high reactivity with a wide range of cellular components, NO+ is very toxic to cells.,Source: Rogstam et al., 2007,6,NO+ Reaction,NO+ reacts with thiols to yield,S-,nitroso compounds.,Thiol containing peptides, amino acids, and proteins lose their biological activity.,Cysteine contains a thiol group, and two cysteine residues form a disulfide bond.,Cysteine thiol group replaced with,S-,nitroso, disulfide bonds cannot be formed tertiary or quaternary protein structure is disrupted.,Source: Rogstam et al., 2007,7,NO Production by Phagocytes,In phagocytes, the ability to kill microorganisms is attributed to phagocyte-derived RNS.,(Fang, 2004),In the cytoplasm, inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is a protein responsible for NO production in macrophages. Lipopolysaccharide production by bacteria stimulates NO production.,NO is an immune response to pathogenic bacteria.,(Rothfork et al., 2004),8,Inhibition by NO,NO inactivates key enzymes that play an important role in microbial growth or infection, such as:,Terminal respiratory oxidases,Iron/sulfur protein aconitase,NO reacts with Methionine to make it biologically inactive.,Source: Ouellet et al., 2002,9,Terminal Respiratory Oxidase,Terminal respiratory oxidase produces water molecules.,If this enzyme is deactivated, then cell growth would be greatly reduced.,Source: Ouellet et al., 2002,10,Iron-sulfur protein aconitase,Aconitase is the enzyme that is responsible for the isomerization of citrate to isocitrate in the citric acid cycle.,If inhibited by NO, the bacteria cannot produce ATP for energy.,11,The citric acid cycle is inhibited by NO production by macrophages.,12,HOONO Reaction with Methionine,HOONO + Methionine Methionine sulfoxide + HONO,HOONO is oxidized.,Methionine sulfoxide is not biologically active.,Source: Pryor et al., 1994,13,Inhibition of,Staphylococcus aureus,Auto inducing peptides (AIP) are secreted in large numbers by,S. aureus,.,Under high AIP conditions, the bacteria upregulates the production of toxins.,ONOOH inhibits AIP biologic function.,Source: Rothfork et al., 2004,14,Inhibition of,Staphylococcus aureus,Inactivation of AIP is accomplished by the oxidation of the C-terminal methionine in the autoinducing peptide by ONOOH.,Summary:,OHOOH produced by macrophages,Inactivates,AIP from,S. aureus, Staphylococcal toxin production is not activated Decreased,S. aureus,virulence,Source: Rothfork et al., 2004,15,How Does Bacteria Respond to NO Toxicity?,Bacteria respond to NO toxicity by activating genes that encode for proteins that will detoxify NO, repair damage, and maintain homeostasis.,Source: Justino et al., 2005,16,Escherichia coli,Response to NO Toxicity,E. coli,uses NO reductase and flavohemoglobin, which plays a big role in RNS detoxification.,Flavohemoglobins are enzymes that bind oxygen and reduce NO,NO,N2O,NO,NO3,Flavohemoglobins successfully render NO free radicals un-reactive.,Source: Justino et al., 2005,17,Conclusion,In macrophages, free radical production is important in innate immunity against numerous infections, such as,S. aureus.,E. coli,has evolved a mechanism to detoxify and protect against NO.,NO is extremely toxic to cells because it disrupts many cellular activities.,18,Works Cited,Fang, F. C. 2004. Antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: concepts and controversies.,Nature Reviews Microbiology,2:,820-832.,Justino, M., Vicente, J., Teixeira, M., and Saraiva, L. 2005. New Genes Implicated in the Protection of Anaerobically Grown,Escherichia coli,Against Nitric Oxide.,Journal of Biological Chemistry,280: 2636-2643.,Ouellet, H., Y. Ouellet, C. Richard, M. Labarre, B. Wittenberg, J. Wittenberg, and M. Guertin. 2002. Truncated hemoglobin HbN protects,Mycobacterium bovis,from nitric oxide.,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,99: 5902-5907.,Pryor, W., Jin, X., and Squadrito, G. 1994. One and Two Electron Oxidations of Methionine by Peroxynitrite.,PNAS,91: 11173-11177.,Rogstam, A., Larsson, J. T., Kjelgaard, P., and von Washenfeldt, C. 2007. Mechanism of Adaptation to Nitrosative Stress in,Bacillus subtilis,.,Journal of Bacteriology,189: 3063-3071.,Rothfork, J., Timmins, G., Harris, M., Chen, X., Lusis, A., Otto, M., Ceung, A., and Gresham, H. 2004. Inactivation of Bacterial Virulence Pheromone by Phagocyte-Derived Oxidants: New Role for the NADPH Oxidase in Host Defense.,PNAS,101: 13867-13872.,Winstedt, L. and Wachenfeldt, C. 2000. Terminal Oxidases of,Bacillus subtilis,strain 168: One Quinol Oxidase, Cytochrome aa3 or Cytochrome bd, Is Required for Aerobic Growth.,Journal of Bacteriology,182: 6557-6564.,19,