Chapter 2 Procedure of Stylistic Analysis

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Chapter 2Procedure of Stylistic Analysis,Linguistic description,Textual analysis,Contextual factors analysis,Linguistic Description,Linguistic description refers to the exploration and classification of linguistic features of a given text.,A linguistic feature is shown by its consistency and relative frequency.,Linguistic Description,The linguistic features are reflected by style markers which are linguistic items that only appear, or are most or least frequent, in a text, representing a particular variety of language or literary genre.,Linguistic Description,Leech and Short (1981) list four linguistic and stylistic categories when they expound,(to explain sth. in detail),the methods of stylistic analysis of fiction: lexical categories, grammatical categories, figures of speech, and cohesion,(the state of sticking together),and context.,Style in Fiction,A checklist of linguistic description,The Phonological Category,The Graphological Category,The Lexical Category,The Syntactic /Grammatical Category,Semantic Category,Linguistic Description,Frequency and distribution of linguistic feature,for,quantitative analysis is,the focus of,the,interet in,linguistic observation.,1.What are the supposed levels of analysis?,1)phonetic and graphic,The,former-the study of the characteristics and potential utility of human vocal noise,The l,atter-the study of written or printed shapes of human vocal noise.,Stress is laid on the physical characteristics of the language.,Linguistic Description,2),phonological and graphological,The,former-the study of sound system of a given language,The,latter-the study of a languages written system, or orthography,Stress is laid on the contrasts made within the,linguistic systemrepetition of segmental sounds in,a specific distribution, patterns of rhythm, intonation,and other non-segmental elements, distinctive uses,of punctuation, capitalization, spacing,Linguistic Description,3),grammatical and lexical,The,formerto study the result of the organization of sounds and letters and to analyze the internal structure of sentences and the way they function in sequences.,The,latter-to study the attributes of single lexical items (vocabulary), the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meaning.,Form-meaning relationship is under serious consideration.,Linguistic Description,4),semantic,T,he descriptive study of the linguistic meaning of a,text over and above the meaning of the lexical items,taken singly: patterns of thematic development, the,distribution of concepts in a text as a whole, the use,of characteristic figures of speech, semantic,correlations.,Linguistic Description,2.How different is the nature of meaning,expressed,at,the semantic level from that at the,lexical level?,Semantic contrasts are less systematic and,definable,and are all-inclusive.,Vocabulary contrasts are relatively discontinuous,finite,(to have a fixed form),and localized.,Linguistic Description,3.Why do we separate linguistic description into,the,above,mentioned,the,levels?,To focus our attention more closely on a particular,aspect of language organization,Linguistic Description,4.What are principles of scaling the importance of,stylistic features?,Frequency and uniqueness,(or salience, importance,),shown by,contrast, which gives rise to quantitative,description of the given text.,The Phonological Category,Phonology is used here to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language, which includes the following aspects:,a. elision (the omission of a sound or sounds in speech,as in,well,dont, and,lets,),b. sound symbolism (the symbolic meaning of sounds),c. sound patterning (the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words),The Phonological Category,d. rhyme (the repetition of identical end sounds),e.g.,a b c d a b c d,Song,The years at the spr,ing,And days at the m,orn,;,Morning s at se,ven,;,The hillsides dew-pear,led,;,The larks on the w,ing,;,The snails on the th,orn,;,Gods in the hea,ven,-,Alls right with the wor,ld,! (Robert Browning),The Phonological Category,e. rhythm (the flow of sounds and their rise and fall, and their accents and pauses),f. pause (brief interruption of the articulatory process which includes silent pause-silent breaks between words, and filled pause-gaps which are filled by such expressions as,um,er,ah,),(p.23),The Phonological Category,g. stress (the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables),(p.22),h. tempo (the speed of speaking),(p.26),i. intonation patterns (patterns of utterance usually expressed by variation in pitch, loudness, syllable length, and speech rhythm),The Phonological Category,j. alliteration (the repetition of an initial sound in two or more words that occur close together),e.g. 1. Thence the,welter,of,water,washes,up,Wan,to,welkin,when,winds,bestir,Evil storms,.,(,Beowulf,),2. We felt,s,trong,s,mug,s,ecure.,3.,B,attle for,b,alanced,b,udget.,The Phonological Category,k. assonance (the repetition of internal vowel sounds in successive words),e.g.,1. The r,ai,n in Sp,ai,n falls on the Pl,ai,n.,2. Light thickens, and the cr,ow,Makes wing to th rooky w,oo,d.,Good things of day begin to droop and dr,ow,se,Whiles nights black agents to their preys do r,ou,se.,(W. Shakespeare),l. consonance (partial or total identity of consonants in successive words or syllables whose main vowels differ, such as,fir,st,and la,st,; a stro,ke,of lu,ck, etc.,),The Phonological Category,m. onomatopoeia (words containing sounds similar to the noises they describe),e.g.,1. The door,banged,closed after him.,2. Thunder,rumbled,in the distance.,3. The train whistle,tooted,.,n. pitch (the relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener),(p.24-25),The Graphological Category,Graphology is used here to refer to the writing forms, and the signs used in a text, which include the following aspects:,a. punctuation (the use of punctuation marks),(p.26),b. capitalization (the use of capital letters),(p.27),c. paragraphing (the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs),(p.28),d. italics (words leaning to the right),(p.27),The Graphological Category,e. format of printing (the general arrangement of the printing forms),f. graphic signs (size or shape of letters, tables, pictures, diagrams, drawings, type style, etc.),g. spelling (normal or deliberate misspelling),The Importance of Graphology,任何一部莎剧都有不止一个版本, 有古本, 也有现代,本。,翻译莎剧首先要决定以哪个版本作为底本, 这一点定下来之,后, 还要决定以哪个或哪些版本作为参校本。底本要有权威,才能作为译本的依据。参校本要有详尽精辟的校勘注疏, 才,能为订正底本的讹误提供参照, 并为译者准确理解底本提,供,帮助。莎剧公认有最终权威的底本只有第一对开本和早期“,好4开本”。,（陈国华, 1996: 50）,The Lexical Category,Lexis is used here to refer to the choice of words, which includes the following aspects:,(p.28-29),a. general or specific (superordinate or subordinate),b. Anglo-Saxon or Latinate,c. conceptual or associative (denotative or connotative),d. monosyllabic or polysyllabic,e. descriptive or evaluative,The Lexical Category,f. formal or informal (clippings, blends, abbreviations),g. standard or nonstandard (slang, jargon),h. dynamic or static (verbs),Dynamic verbs refer to :, activities having duration, e.g. walk, read, talk, etc.;, processes or transitions, e.g. grow, arrive, become, etc.;, momentary acts, e.g. kick, jump, etc.;,The Lexical Category,Static verbs refer to:, a relationship or a state of being, e.g. be, belong to, own, possess, etc.;, state of perception, e.g. hear, see, smell, think, etc. and state of emotion and attitude, e.g. love, hate, want, etc.,The Lexical Category,i. vulgar or euphemistic,j. favorable or unfavorable,k. archaic or neologism (old fashioned or new words),l. common or rare,m. abstract or concrete (nouns),The Syntactic/Grammatical Categories,Syntax is used here to refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences. The syntactic/grammatical categories include the following aspects:,a. sentence types (simple or multiple; major or minor, periodic or loose, etc.),b. sentence length (in number of words),c. sentence complexity (coordination/subordination/parataxis, etc.),The Syntactic/Grammatical Categories,d. noun phrases,e. clause types (SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVC, SVOO, SVOC; finite/nonfinite; verbless; independent/dependent),f. phrase types (NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP, PrepP),g. grammatical constructions (comparative or superlative; coordinative or cataloguing; parenthetical, etc.),The Syntactic/Grammatical Categories,word order (normal or inverted, etc.),tenses (the prevailing tenses; simple or complicated, etc.),voices (active or passive),grammaticality (grammatical or nongrammatical),Semantic Category,Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee. Here, our concern is mainly the rhetorical devices, especially figures of speech, which can be roughly divided into eight types:,a. figures of comparison (simile, metaphor, analogy, personification, synaesthesia, etc.);,Semantic Category,b. figures of replacement (metonymy, synecdoche, antonomasia, allusion, hyperbole, euphemism, understatement, etc.),c. figures of repetition (alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, hendiadys, polysyndeton, reiteration, etc.),d. figures of contrast/juxtaposition (antithesis, oxymoron, paradox, parallelism, climax, anticlimax, etc.),Semantic Category,e. figures of double meaning (pun, irony, satire, sarcasm, etc.),f. figures of reverse meanings (palindrome, spoonerism, etc.),g. figures of resemblance (parody, grotesque idiom, onomatopoeia, etc.),h. figures of omission: asyndeton, parataxis, syllepsis, zeugma, etc.,Semantic Category,Apart from the figures of speech, communicative rhetorical devices (lexical accuracy, structural meticulousness, contextual appropriateness, etc.) also play an important part.,Secondarily, it may include such aspects as how the overall discourse patterning, planning, subject matter, the text layout, and the introduction of materials of different kinds contribute to the conveying of meaning of the whole text.,Textual Analysis,The definition of Text,Etymologically, the word text comes from a metaphorical use of the Latin verb textere(weave), suggesting a sequence of sentences or utterances interwoven structually and semantically.,Textual Analysis,It is possible for a text to consist of only one sentence or utterances, e.g. a notice or road sign (Exit; Stop), which is semantically complete in itself, and pragmatically tied to a specific situation.,A Dictionary of Stylistics, by Katie Wales,Textual Analysis,The text includes the following aspects:,a. text layout (general frame work of the text),b. reference (personal, demonstrative, comparative, etc.),c. substitution (nominal, verbal, clausal, etc.),d. ellipsis (nominal, verbal, clausal, etc.),Textual Analysis,e. logical connectors (additive, adversative, causal, temporal, and other logical connections, e.g. reiteration, classification, division, exemplification,etc.),f. collocation (words typically associated with one another),g. inter-sentence relationship (coordination, homology, sequence, separation, hyponymy, reiteration, adversative and contrast, explanation, cause and effect, etc.).,Contextual Factors Analysis,The definition of Context,Context consists of two aspects:,One is linguistic context, referring to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text.,The other is extra-linguistic context, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning.,Contextual Factors Analysis,According to Functional Stylistics, contextual factors include the following aspects:,a. Field of discourse,b. Tenor of discourse,c. Mode of discourse,Major Topics to be Discussed:,1. What,are the three steps of stylistic analysis?,2. Substantiate the four items: rhyme, alliteration, assonance, and consonance.,3. Define the terms: phonology, graphology, lexis, syntax, and semantics.,4. What is a text? Explain the aspects of textual analysis.,5. What is context? Explain the three types of contextual factors according to Functional Stylistics.,The goals of stylistic inquiry,The first goal of stylistics is to help readers understand a text better. In other words, it provides insights into the meaning of the text.,The second goal is to explain why and how one text is better than another one. That is to say, stylistics is more directly concerned with interpretation of a text.,Thank you for your attention!,