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Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Click to edit the title text format,Click to edit the outline text format,Second Outline Level,Third Outline Level,Fourth Outline Level,Fifth Outline Level,Sixth Outline Level,Seventh Outline Level,Eighth Outline Level,Ninth Outline Level,Scientific writing and,presentation,Prof. Mark Bartlam,College of Life Sciences, Nankai University,E-mail:,bartlam,Tel: 23502351,Course outline,Lecture 7+8: How to write a scientific paper.,How to plan and layout your paper;,Writing a good abstract and introduction;,Methods;,Results, discussion and conclusions;,Authorships and acknowledgments;,Getting feedback from others.,Experimental process,Section of paper,What did I do in a nutshell?,Abstract,What is the problem?,Introduction,How did I solve the problem?,Materials and Methods,What did I find out?,Results,What does it mean?,Discussion,Who helped me out?,Acknowledgements,Whose work did I refer to?,References,Extra information,Supplementary information,How to plan and layout your paper,Follow the standard,IMRAD,format:,I,ntroduction,M,ethods,R,esults,A,nd,D,iscussion,How to plan and layout your paper,The rigid IMRAD structure makes scientific writing easier.,Plan each section carefully,How to plan and layout your paper,Each main section should begin with a heading.,When your paper reports on more than one experiment, use subheadings to organize your presentation.,How to plan and layout your paper,e.g.:,Materials and Methods,Cloning and expression,.,Purification and crystallization,.,Structure determination,.,Section heading,Subheading,Subheading,Subheading,Review articles,Review articles dont follow the IMRAD structure.,You are reviewing several studies together, not a single study or experiment.,Start with the introduction, then break down into headings/subheadings according to your field of study.,Strategy,Choose which strategy works best for you (tortoise vs. hare).,May be better to start with section that has the most constraints: Materials or Methods, or Results.,Alternatively, prepare figures and tables first, then use them to write the Results section.,Introduction,What is the problem, and why should anyone care?,Deal with these questions briefly, interestingly, and as simply as possible.,A well-written introduction should persuade colleagues or non-specialists to begin reading the paper.,Introduction,First, state the general field of interest.,Concisely present what is already known about the subject of your research.,Reference the most important publications in,primary journals,.,Dont mention everything unless you are writing a review article or thesis.,Introduction,Second, present others findings that will be challenged or expanded.,Explain how you are hoping to extend or modify what is already known or believed.,Provide support for your argument.,Introduction,Third, specify the question the paper addresses, and how it does so.,This sentence is often phrased in the form of a hypothesis.,e.g. “The purpose of this study was to.” or “We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the.”,Indicate your experimental approach.,Point out what is new and important about your work.,When appropriate, briefly summarize the answer(s) you found.,Introduction,Aim to divide your Introduction as follows:,Background: 1-3 paragraphs.,Findings to be challenged: 1-2 paragraphs.,Question addressed by the paper: 1 paragraph.,Materials and Methods,May have several names:,Materials and Methods,Experimental Procedures,Experimental Design, Protocol and Procedure,.,Materials and Methods,May have several names:,Materials and Methods,Experimental Procedures,Experimental Design, Protocol and Procedure,.,Materials and Methods,Begin by listing the supplies that were necessary for your work.,Include animate materials (experimental animals, plants) and inanimate materials (chemicals, reagents).,If necessary, explicitly,明确地,note that use of animals conformed to,遵照,legal requirements for the country where research was conducted.,Materials and Methods,Next, specify what was done and for what purpose.,Common to proceed in chronological order.,Alternatively, parallel the sequence in which you present results.,Conclude with a discussion of statistical procedures used.,Materials and Methods,Include the right amount of detail.,too much reads like a laboratory manual.,too little and no one can determine what you actually did.,Readers (trained investigator with experience) should be able to repeat your experiments.,Materials and Methods,Refer to examples published in your chosen journal.,Materials and Methods,In the U.S., studies should be conducted in accordance with Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) guidelines (Benson and Boege, 2002),Requires preparation of standard operating procedures for all aspects of a project.,Referring to these procedures can be helpful.,Materials and Methods,If following a widely known method, name the principles on which it is based and cite the original publication (or recent textbooks).,If you modify a method, describe the changes and reference the rest.,Only describe a method in full if you have employed a new process or technique.,Materials and Methods,Use subheadings to separate different types of experiments.,Write as if you were verbally describing the conduct of the experiment.,You may use the active voice,主动语态, although this section requires more use of third person, passive constructions,than others.,Avoid use of the first person in this section.,Remember to use the past tense throughout - the work being reported is done and was performed in the past.,红色表示不理解,Results,What was found or seen?,Decide on a logical order for presentation.,Present results that,have a bearing on,与有关,the question you are examining.,Dont interpret,your results unless your journal combines Results and Discussion.,如果你的文章没有把结果和讨论合并的话，不要在结果中解释你 的结果,.,红色表示不理解,Pattern,Basis,Categorical,Grouping of like items,Chronological,Time sequence,Spatial,Physical arrangement of entities,Functional,How parts work,Importance,In order of decreasing consequence,Problem-solutions,Problem, possible answers,Specificity,General to particular (or vice versa),Complexity,Simple to complex,Pro and con,Both sides of an issue or decision,Causality,Cause and effect,Deductive,Conclusion first, then background,Inductive,Individual facts, leading to conclusion,Results,Tables and figures are an integral part of the results section.,Dont use text to repeat information,contained in tables or figures.,Readers can see data for themselves.,Point out salient features,特色,and note relationships between various results.,Results,Some problems to avoid:,Do not reiterate,重申,each value,from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends that each conveys.,Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best shows the result and go with it.,Do not report raw data,原始数据,values when they can be summarized as means, percents, etc.,Results,Number figures and tables according to the order in which they appear in the text.,e.g. First Table 1, then Table 2.,e.g. First Figure 1, then Figure 2, Figure 3.,If using figure panels, label the parts in a logical order:,e.g. First Figure 1a, then Figure 1b.,Discussion and Conclusions,What do your findings mean? Why are they important?,Discussion and Conclusions exist to answer these questions.,Often combined with each other.,Sometimes combined with Results as well.,Discussion and Conclusions,Interpret your results against a background of existing knowledge.,Explain what is new in your work, and why it matters.,Discuss both the limitations and implications of your results.,Relate your observations to other relevant studies.,Discussion and Conclusions,State new hypotheses (clearly labeled as such) when they are warranted.,Include recommendations,推荐,建议,when appropriate.,Discussion and Conclusions,Watch for symptoms of megalomania,夸大狂,.,Avoid exaggerated or extravagant claims for your work.,Carefully distinguish between facts and speculation.,Be wary,谨慎的,about extrapolating,外推,your results to other species or conditions.,Discussion and Conclusions,Avoid pointing out shortcomings of another investigators report,(natural human tendency).,Indicate possible next steps to resolve any apparent conflicts.,Admit anomalies in your results.,Discuss possible errors or limitations in your methods and assumptions.,Discussion and Conclusions,Dont offer too many alternative hypotheses.,As a general rule, the discussion should never be the longest section in a paper.,Acknowledgements,Usually appear between the Discussion and Reference section.,Include any substantial help from organizations or individuals.,Include funding bodies here (or on the title page if specified by the journal).,Acknowledgements,Concisely thank those who went out of their way to help, and describe their contribution.,Do not list people who did not contribute directly to the reported work.,Do not list people who did no more than their routine laboratory, secretarial or iffice work.,References,Include all references you cited (specifically referred to) in the text, tables and figures.,For your first draft, use,the name-and-year,(Harvard) system for citations:,e.g. (Bartlam & Rao, 2009), (Bartlam,et al,., 2005),Easier to compile a final reference list from names than from numbers.,References,There are hundreds of different literature reference styles.,Each journal has a specific literature reference style or format.,Using programs such as EndNote can help you apply proper formatting to your final draft.,References,Be aware of reference limits imposed by some journals.,Check the,Instructions to Authors,carefully.,One common restriction is 40 references for full articles or 10 for brief communications.,Abstracts and summaries,Abstracts usually inserted right after the title page in the completed document.,These are easier to prepare when your document is finished.,First draft may help you to stay focused,持续专注,.,Abstracts and summaries,Some journals use the term “summary” to describe abstracts.,Generally, a summary is not the same as an abstract.,An abstract is an abbreviated version of the paper.,A summary restates the main findings and conclusions of the paper.,Abstracts,Abstracts come in several varieties.,Informative abstracts include some data and are commonly used with documents that describe original research.,Address same questions as the main text of the paper, but briefly and without supporting tables and figures.,Abstracts,Indicative abstracts (also called descriptive or topical) contain general statements about the subjects covered.,Often used for review articles or books.,Can be created by turning the table of contents into sentences.,Abstracts,Both informative and indicative abstracts are typically limited to between,100 and 250,words.,Different points are emphasized in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the text itself.,Generally written as a single paragraph.,Abstracts,Structured abstracts generally longer - up to 400 words.,Series of points grouped below headings:,Objective,目标,Design,设计,Results,结果,Conclusions,结论,Relevance,红色表示不理解,Abstracts,Staying within an abstracts word count is a challenge for almost every writer.,Be as brief and specific as possible.,Write complete sentences that logically follow one another.,Use the,third person, active voice, and the past tense.,Abstracts,Write the abstract so that it can stand on its own merits,优点,.,Many readers of the abstract will never see your entire text.,Avoid citing others work here,.,Avoid,unfamiliar,terms, acronyms, abbreviations,缩写词,or symbols,符号,.,Never introduce information in the abstract,not covered,in the paper.,Abstracts,Strategy,:,The abstract, by definition, must be written last since it will summarize the paper.,To begin composing your abstract, take whole sentences or key phrases from each section and put them in a sequence which summarizes the paper.,Then revise or add words to make it cohesive and clear.,Abstracts,An abstract should contain:,The question you propose (from Introduction);,The methods used (from Methods);,The major findings (from Results);,A brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions (from Discussion).,Abstracts,How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract?,Imagine that you are another researcher doing an study similar to the one you are reporting.,If your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the information presented there?,Keywords,Define keywords (around 5) to help others understand what your research is about and to search for your paper.,Keywords can include:,The organism, gene or protein you are studying;,The method or technique you are using;,Gene family, protein family or enzyme classification;,.,Title,Every document needs a rough working title for identification purpose.,A working title is rarely suitable for the final paper.,Is is interesting, concise and informative?,Title,Pay attention to your journals,Instructions to Authors,for title length, capitalization style and general form.,Declarative title: written as a sentence or fragment that includes what the paper says,Descriptive title: neutral title describing what the paper covers.,Title,Declarative,:,Selective elimination of messenger RNA prevents an incidence of untimely meiosis.,Descriptive,:,Mechanism of DNA translocation in a replicative hexameric helicase.,Title,Most journals prefer short titles, typically not over 100 characters, including spaces between words.,Typically 10-12 words.,Delete trivial phrases (“Notes on.”, “A study of.”).,If possible, give the key result of the study in the title for more impact.,Title,Poor,:,A Study of Chipmunk Muscle Tissue Ion Channel Amino Acid Activation Parameters.,Better,:,Amino Acid Activation of Ion Channels in Chipmunk Muscle Tissue.,Title,Most editors frown upon fanciful titles.,Two-part titles (main title and subtitle) also frowned upon.,Titles ending with a question mark are seldom acceptable.,Title,Risky choices:,German Saxifrage Pollens are Superior to Those in Austria,Does,Saxifraga,Pollen in Germany Resemble That in Austria?,Pollen Between a Rock and a Hard Place: German and Austrian Saxifrages,Title,Acceptable:,Pollen Morphology of German and Austrian,Saxifraga,Species,Authorships,Authorship:,All contributors should receive credit for their contributions to the research project.,Science is now much more collaborative, many more authors on a single paper - need some sort of order.,Authorships,Author contributions include:,Designing experiments;,Performing experiments;,Analyzing results;,Writing the paper;,Providing reagents, chemicals or other materials.,Authorships,Discuss authorship before starting the first draft,Reach agreement on authorship as soon as possible;,Disagreements over authorship can cause hard feelings and wreck friendships.,Authorships,List and order of authors should determine responsibility.,Generally, the first author should write the paper.,Designate the first author/best writer as the coordinator.,Assign coordinator the responsibility for the outline, introduction, abstract and conclusions.,Authorships,Divide responsibility for other parts (Methods, Results, Tables and Figures) to remaining authors.,Set clear deadlines for each step of the writing.,Communicate often and clearly.,Getting feedback from others,Use “peer review” to get feedback from colleagues to improve your paper.,Getting feedback from others,Remember to give positive comments where a writer has done well;,Turn negative feedback into productive feedback.,Getting feedback from others,When reviewing, it is always important to note a papers strengths, so that the author will not lose these in the process of revision.,Never assume an author will automatically know which parts of a paper work well.,The author has been immersed in it too long to be objective.,Getting feedback from others,How to deal with the parts that really do have problems?,The key is to make sure the comments you write are substantive comments.,Getting feedback from others,As we read, we all have reactions to problematic parts of a paper:,“,Huh? This is unclear!”,“,Gosh, this is disorganized!”,“,What is this person trying to say here?”,These reactions are only the first step.,Getting feedback from others,How can you turn these unhelpful comments into helpful ones?,Ask why you are reacting negatively to that sentence or paragraph.,Why, for instance, does a paragraph seem disorganized?,Are several topics mixed together in one paragraph?,Is a single topic treated, but presented out of logical sequence, so that the reader is constantly grasping for information not yet given?,Getting feedback from others,Unhelpful comment:,This section needs work.,Helpful comment:,Combine the related actions into a single sentence in Methods, e.g., Flies were assigned randomly to 5 treatment groups of 25, and were weighed, sexed, and marked with non-toxic paint before behaviorial trials began,Getting feedback from others,Unhelpful comment:,Disorganized!,Helpful comment:,This section discusses both animal-rearing conditions and experimental methods, but the two are mixed together. Could you separate each into its own paragraph?,Getting feedback from others,Unhelpful comment:,How are these references relevant?,Helpful comment:,The background and references given in poaragraph 2 dont seem directly relevant to our hypothesis. I think we need references on how light has been shown to affect flowering (in sunflower or any species), and less on other factors that promote
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