心理学与生活 英文

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,Psychology,Research Methods in Psychology,1.Richard J. Gerring, Philip G.Zimbardo. (2002).Psychology and Life(16th) .,US:A Pearson Education Company,.,2.Spencer A. Rathus. (1996).Essentials of Psychology(15th).US:Harcourt Brace,College Publishers,.,Table of Contents,1.,The Scientific Method,2.,Research Methods,3.,Ethical Issues,the scientific method,What is the,scientific method,?,The scientific method is a method for obtaining scientific evidence in which,research questions or hypotheses are formulated and tested. It helps ensure,that psychological research generates valid, reliable conclusions by minimizing,sources of error.,Observer bias,can influence our researches, so we must do our best,to reduce the impact of the observer bias,.,How to Remedy for Observer Bias?,1.Standardization,:,meaning using uniform procedures in all phases of the research,process. All participants should experience exactly the same procedure, and other,researchers should be able to replicate the procedure exactly.,2.operational definition:,standardizing the meaning of an event or procedure within,an experiment. All variables in an experiment must be given an operational definition.,the scientific method,The,scientific,method,Reaearch questions,Hypotheses,Examining,Hypotheses testing,New research questions,Or hypotheses,Psychological theory,Daily experiences,Commonly held beliefs,Evidence,(observations,),Drawing conclusions,Theory construction,Or modification,What are the commonly used research methods in Psychology,？,the,methods of observation,the correlational method,the experimental method,Research Methods,Research Methods,The,Methods Of Observation,Research,particapants,survey,Cases-study,Laboratory-observation,Naturalistic-observation,testing,Research Methods,The,Methods Of Observation,The case-study method,:,A carefully drawn biography that may be,obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests.,Case-study are often used to investigate rare occurrences.,The survey method,:,A method of investigation in which a large sample,of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior.,Psychologists conduct survey to learn about behavior that cannot be,observed or studied experimentally. By distributing questionnaires and,analyzing with a computer, psychologists can survey many thousands,of people at a time.,Interviews and questionnaires are not foolproof. For example misrepresenting,、,ingratiating themselves and so on.,The,Methods Of Observation,Research Methods,The testing method,:,Psychologists use psychological test to measure traits,among a population. The traits rang from intelligence and achievement to anxiety,depression, the need of social dominance and so on.,Important decisions are made on the basis of psychological tests. They must,thus be reliable and valid.,Reliability,and,Validity,The naturalistic-observation method,:,Observing people in their natural habitats.,Psychologists observe behavior in the field, or “where it happens.” They try to avoid,interfering with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive measures.,The laboratory-observation method,:,placing animals or people into controlled,laboratory environments where they can be observed.,The Correlational Method,The Correlational Method,:,A scientific method that studies the relationships,between variables.,Psychologists use the correlational method to learn whether observed behavior,or measured trait is related, or correlated with, another.,The numbers are mathematically related and expressed as a correlation,coefficient.(-1+1),Positive correlational and negative correlational.,intelligence,grade,positive,stress,Immune system function,negative,Research Methods,Research Methods,The Experimental Method,The Experimental Method,:,A scientific method that,seeks to confirm cause-and-,effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects,on dependent variable.,Experiments allow psychologists to control directly the experiences of animal or,people and to draw conclusions about cause and effect.,Treatment,: In experiments, a condition received by participants so that its effects,may be observed.,Independent variable,: A condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that,its effects may be observed.,Dependent variable,: A measureof an assumed effect of an independent.,The Experimental Method,Research Methods,Experimental and Control Groups,: Experimental participants partake in the,treatment. Members of control groups do not.,Blinds and Double Blinds,: Blinds means that particaipants are unware of whether,or not has received a treatment. Double-blind study means that a study in which,neither the participants nor the persons measuring results know who has received,the treatment.,Placebo,: A bogus treatment that has appearance of being genuine. We can conclude,that changes in behavior stem from paiticipantsbeliefs about somenthing, not the,thing itself.,The ethical issues,The ethical issues,Informed Consent,:,Whenever possible, participants must be informed about the nature,of the experiment in which they may participate and, after being informed, must consent to,participate. They are also informed that their consent is conditional and that they can withdraw,it at any time without penalty.,Risk / Gain,Assessment,:,Not only do researchers have a responsibility to weigh potential,risks of an,experiment against its potential benefits, they also have a responsibility to do,every,-,thing in their power to minimize risk to participants, whether they are,human or nonhuman,and,to optimize the possible benefits to the participants,and to society,.,APA guidelines make it clear that intentional deception is justified only if:,The study has,sufficient scientific and educational importance to warrant deception.,There is no equally effective alternative to deception.,Participants are not deceived concerning aspects of the experiment that would affect their,willingness to participate.,The deception, and the reasons for it, is fully explained to the participants at the conclusion,of the research.,Debriefing,:,At the conclusion of participation in an experiment, each participant must be,told the rationale for the experiment. This debriefing gives the participant an opportunity to,learn about psychology and themselves, and allows them to appreciate more fully their,experience in the experiment.,Issues in Animal Research: Science, Ethics, Politics,The ethical issues,The ethical issues,Reliability,：,The consistency or dependability of results from research.,Validity,:,The degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.,The Biological Bases of Behavior,PSYCHOLOGY,Douglas A.Bernstein, LouisA.Penner, Alison Clarke-Stewart, Edward J. Roy.(2021).,Psychology(8th).US:Houghton Mifflin Company.,Table of Contents,The Nervous System,The Chemistry,The Endocrine System,The Nervous System,Cells of the Nervous System,N,euron:,Fundamental unit of the nervous system; nerve cell.,Glial cells,（,神经元,）,:,Cells in the nervous system that hold neurons together and help them communicate with one another.,A,xon,（轴突）,:,A fiber that carries signals from the body of a neuron out to where communication occurs with other neurons.,D,endrite,（树突）,:,A neuron fiber that receives signals from the axons of other neurons and carries those signals to the cell body.,S,ynapse,（突触）,:,The tiny gap between neurons across which they communicate,The Nervous System,Common Features of Neurons,Three features that neurons share with almost every other kind,of cell in the body,：,First, neurons have an,outer membrane,that acts like a fine screen,letting some substances pass in and out while blocking others.,Second, nervous system cells have a,cell body,which contains,a,nucleus,(only red blood cells have no nucleus).,Third, nervous system cells contain,mitochondria,(,线粒体,).,Action Potentials,The Nervous System,An abrupt wave of electrochemical changes traveling down an axon when a neuron becomes depolarized.,The Beginning of an Action Potential,The electrochemical potential across the membrane is created because there are more positively charged molecules outside the membrane than inside. There are also more negatively charged molecules on the inside than on the outside. If stimulation causes depolarization near a particular gate, that gate may swing open, allowing positively charged molecules to rush in. This, in turn, depolarizes the neighboring region of membrane and stimulates the,next gate to open, and so on down the axon. This wave of depolarization is,called an,action potential,. Membrane gates allow action potentials to pread along dendrites in a similar fashion.,Synapses and Communication Between Neurons,The Nervous System,Neurotransmitters:,Communication between neurons across the,synapse relies first on chemical messengers called,neurotransmitters,.,Communication Between Neurons,1.An,action potential,shoots down the,axon, away from the cell body.,2.A,neurotransmitter,is released into the,synapse, where the,dendrites,of neighboring,neurons detect it.,3.If there is a receptor for this neurotransmitter,on the dendrites, the neurotransmitter and,receptor bind, creating an electrochemical signal,4.,If that signal is strong enough, it spreads down,the dendrites and across the cell body of the next,neuron, and begins another action potential.,Organization and Functions of the Nervous system,The Nervous System,Neural network:,Neurons that operate together to perform complex functions.,The nervous system has two major divisions,The Peripheral Nervous System: Keeping in Touch with,the World.,The Central Nervous System: Making Sense of the World.,Nervous system,Central,nervous system,Peripheral,nervous system,Brain,Spinal,cord,Somatic,Autonomic,Sym-,pathetic,Parasym-,pathetic,The Nervous System,T,he Brain,Major Structures of the Brain,Brain,Forebrain,Midbrain,Hindbrain,Locus,coeruleus,Cerebellum,Reticular,formation,Medulla,locus coeruleus(蓝斑):,A small nucleus in,the reticular formation that is involved,in directing attention.,Major Structures of the Forebrain,The Nervous System,Forebrain:,The most highly developed part of the brain; it,is responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and,mental life.,Hypothalamus,(下丘脑),:Connects to and from the autonomic,nervous system, and is involved in regulating hunger,thirst and sex drive.,Corpus callosum(,胼胝体):,A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.,Cerebral cortex,(,大脑皮层,):The outer bark that covers the forebrain and is responsible for processing complex information.,Striatum,(,纹状体,):Together with the Substantia Nigra in the Midbrain, coordinates the smooth initiation of movement.,thalamus,(,丘脑,),:,A forebrain structure that relays signals from most sense organs to higher levels in the brain and plays an important role in processing and making sense out of this information.,amygdala,(杏仁核):,A structure in the forebrain that, among other things, associates features of stimuli from two sensory modalities.,Hippocampus,(海马):,A structure in the forebrain associated with the formation of new memories.,The amygda, the hippocampus, the hypothalamus, the septum(隔膜), and portions of the cerebral cortex are all part of the limbic system(边缘系统).,The Nervous System,The Nervous System,The Cerebral Cortex,Cerebral,cortex,Frontal,Lobe,额叶,Temporal,Lobe,颞叶,Parietal,Lobe,顶叶,Occipital,Lobe,枕叶,The Chemistry,Neurons that use the same neurotransmitter form a,N,eurotransmitter system,.,Three Classes of Neurotransmitters:small molecules,Peptides多肽, and gases.,Acetylcholine,systems,(,乙酰胆碱,) in the brain influence,Memory processes and movement.,Norepinephrine,(,去甲肾上腺素,),is released by neurons,whose axons spread widely throughout the brain; it is,involved in arousal, mood, and learning.,Serotonin,(,5-羟色胺), another widespread neurotransmitter,is active in systems regulating mood and appetite.,Dopamine,systems,(多巴胺),are involved in movement,motivation, and higher cognitive activities.,GABA,(-氨基丁酸 )is an inhibitory neurotransmitter,involved in anxiety and epilepsy.,Glutamate,(谷氨酸盐),is the most common excitatory,neurotransmitter. It is involved in learning and memory and,in excess, may cause neuronal death.,Endorphins,(内啡肽),are peptide neurotransmitters that affect,pain pathways.,Nitric oxide,(一氧化氮),and carbon monoxide,(一氧化碳),are,gases that function as neurotransmitters.,The Chemistry,The Endocrine System: Coordinating the Internal World,The Endocrine System,The,endocrine system,communicate by releasing a chemical that,signals to other cells.,The chemicals released by endocrine organs, or,G,lands,(,腺体,),are,called,hormones,(,激素,),and are carried by the bloodstream to,remote target organs.,The target organs often produce a coordinated response to hormonal stimulation.,Hormones also affect brain development, contributing,to sex differences in the brain and behavior.,Negative feedback systems are involved in the control of most endocrine functions.,The brain is the main controller. Through the pothalamus(,下丘脑,),it controls the pituitary gland(,下垂体,), which in turn controls endocrine organs in the body. The brain is also a target organ for most endocrine secretions.,The Endocrine System,Psychology: The science of behavior and mental processes,.,阿,2021应用心理学专业,猫,作,品,