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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved.,*,CHAPTER 1,The Nature of Negotiation,T,he Titles,A Few Words about Our Style & Approach.,Joe and Sue Carter.,Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation.,Interdependence.,Mutual Adjustment.,Value Claiming and Value Creation.,Conflict.,Effective Conflict Management.,Overview of the whole book &Chapter Summary.,1. A Few Words about Our Style & Approach,Be careful about how we use,bargaining,and,negotiation,.,Negotiation is a very complex social process ; many of the most important factors that shape a negotiation result.,Our insights into negotiation draw from three sources. (experience, media, the wealth of social science research),2. Joe and Sue Carter,A story about a husband and wife.,In this day ,they faced the challenges of many major and minor negotiations.,We use the story to highlight something important (,definition ,characteristics of a negotiation, and so on,).,3. Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation,(1) There are two or more parties.,(2) There is a conflict of needs and desires between two or more parties.,(3) The parties negotiate,by choice,.,(4) When we negotiate we expect a “give and take ” process.,(5) The parties prefer to negotiate and search for agreement.,(6) Successful negotiation involves the management of,tangibles,& also the resolution of,intangibles.,4. Interdependence,When the parties depend on each other to achieve their own preferred outcome they are interdependent.,Most relationships between parties may be characterized in one of three ways : independent, dependent, or interdependent.,Note that having interdependent goals do not mean that everyone wants or needs exactly the same thing,Types of interdependence affect outcomes.,Alternatives shape interdependence.,5. Mutual Adjustment,Mutual adjustment and concession making.,When one party agrees to make a change in his or her position, a concession has been made.,Concessions restrict the range of options, with which a solution or agreement will be reached; when a party makes a concession, the bargaining range is further constrained.,Two dilemmas in mutual adjustment.,F,irst, the,dilemma of honesty,concerns how much of the truth to tell?,Second, the,dilemma of trust, how much should the negotiators believe what the other party tells them?,6. Value Claiming and Value Creation -1,Identify two types of interdependent situations ,zero-sum and non-zero-sum,.,The structure of interdependence shapes the strategies and tactics that negotiators employ.,In distributive situations negotiators are motivated to win the competition and beat the other party to gain the largest piece of the fixed resource that they can.,In integrative situations the negotiators should employ win-win strategies and tactics.,Unfortunately, most actual negotiations are combination of claiming and creating value processes.,T,he implications for this are significant:,(1),Negotiators must be able to recognize situations that require more of one approach than the other.,(2),Negotiators must be versatile in their comfort and use of both major strategic approaches,.,(3),Negotiator perceptions of situations tend to be biased toward seeing problems as more distributive/competitive than they really are,.,6. Value Claiming and Value Creation -2,V,alue may be created in numerous ways , and the heart of process lies in exploiting the differences that exist between the negotiators.,T,he key differences among negotiators include these:,(1),Differences in interests.,(2),Differences in judgments about the future.,(3),Differences in risk tolerance,.,(4),Differences in time preference,.,6. Value Claiming and Value Creation -3,7. Conflict,A potential consequence of interdependent relationships is conflict. Conflict can result from the strongly divergent needs of the two parties of from misperception and misunderstanding.,Conflict can occur when two parties are working toward the same goal and generally want the same outcome or when both parties want very different outcomes.,Regardless of the cause of the conflict, negotiation can play an important role in resolving it effectively.,7.1 D,efinitions,C,onflict may be defined as a “sharp disagreement or opposition, as of interest, ideas, etc”, and includes “the perceived divergence of interest, or belief t,ha,t the parties current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously”.,C,onflict results from “the interaction of interdependent people who perceived incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving those goals.”,7.2 L,evels of Conflict,Four levels of conflict are commonly identified,:,I,ntrapersonal or intrapsychic conflict.,I,nterpersonal conflict.,I,ntragroup conflict.,I,ntergroup conflict.,7.3 F,unction and Dysfunctions of Conflict,E,lements t,ha,t contribute to conflicts destructive image:,(1)C,ompetitive , win-lose goals.,(2)M,isperception and bias.,(3)E,motionality.,(4)D,ecreased communication.,(5)B,lurred issues.,(6)R,igid commitments.,(7)M,agnified differences and minimized similarities.,(8)E,scalation of conflict.,7.4 F,actors that Make Conflict Easy or Difficult to Manage,Figure 1.2 presents a conflict diagnostic model. This model offers some useful dimensions for analyzing ay dispute and determine how easy or difficult it will be to resolve.,Conflicts with more of the characteristics in the “difficult to resolve” column will be harder to settle, while those that have more characteristics in the “easy to resolve ” column will be settled quicker.,8. Effective Conflict Management,Figure 1.3,The dual concerns model,Yielding,Problem,solving,(compromising),Inaction,Contending,Concern about own outcomes,C,oncern about others outcomes,8. Chapter Summary,In this chapter, we have set the groundwork for a thorough and detailed examination of the negotiation process.,W,e used examples to introduce the variety of negotiations that occur daily and to discuss how we present material in this book.,W,e turned to the extended example of a day in life of Joe and Sue and showed how negotiations permeate daily experience. We also use this example to help define the key parameters of a negotiation situation.,A,nd we explore four key elements of the negotiation process.,CHAPTER 2,Strategy and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining,T,he Titles,The Distributive Bargaining Situation.,Tactical Tasks.,Positions Taken during Negotiation .,Commitment .,Closing the Deal.,Hardball Tactics.,Distributive Bargaining Skills Applicable to Integrative Negotiation .,Chapter Summary.,1. The Distributive Bargaining Situation,F,igure 2.1,The buyers view of the house negotiation,$,130,000,$,135,000,$,140,000,$,145,000,$,150,000,Larrys,t,arget,point,Megans,target,point,Larrys,resistance,point,F,igure 2.2,The buyers view of the house negotiation (Extended),$130,000,$150,000,$145,000,$140,000,$135,000,$133,000,Megans,r,esistance,p,oint,(inferred),Larrys,initial,p,oint,(public),Larrys,target,p,oint,(private),Megans,target,p,oint,(inferred),Megans,asking,p,oint,(public),Larrys,r,esistance,p,oint,(inferred),F,igure 2.3,The buyers view of the house negotiation (Extended with alternatives),1.1 T,he Role of Alternatives to a Negotiated Agreement,Megans,r,esistance,p,oint,(inferred),Larrys,initial,offer,(public),Larrys,target,p,oint,(private),Megans,alternative,buyer,(private),Megans,target,p,oint,(inferred),Megans,alternative,house,(private),Megans,asking,p,oint,(public),Larrys,r,esistance,p,oint,(inferred),$130,000,$133,000,$135,000,$134,000,$140,000,$142,000,$145,000,$150,000,1.2 Settlement Point,T,he objective of both parties is to reach an agreement as close to the other partys resistant point as possible.,Both parties must believe t,ha,t the settlement is the best they can get.,A,nother factor will affect the satisfaction with the agreement is whether the parties will see each other again.,1.3 Bargaining Mix,T,he package of issues for negotiation is,bargaining mix,. Each item in the mix has its own starting, target, and resistance point.,Negotiators need to understand what is important to them and to the other party, and they need to take these priorities into account during the planning process.,1.4 Fundamental Strategies,I,n the condo example, the buy has four fundamental strategies available:,(1) To push for a settlement close to the sellers resistance point.,(2) To convince the seller to change her resistance point.,(3) If a negative settlement range exists, to convince the seller to reduce her resistance point.,(4) To convince the seller to believe t,ha,t this settlement is the best that is possible.,1.5 Discovering the Other Partys Resistance Point,T,he more you can learn about the other partys target, resistance point, motives, feelings of confidence, and so on, the more able you will be to strike a favorable agreement.,T,o influence the other partys perception, however, they must establish some points effectively and convincingly.,1.6 Influencing the Other Partys Resistance Point,F,actors are important in attempting to influence the other partys resistance point:,(1) the value the other attaches to a particular outcome;,(2) the cost the other attaches to delay or difficulty in negotiations;,(3) the cost the other attaches to having the negotiation aborted.,A significant factor in shaping the other persons understanding of what is possible is the others understanding of your own situation.,T,o explain how these factors can affect the process , we will make four major propositions:,1. The higher the other partys estimate of your cost of delay or impasse, the stronger the other partys resistance point will be.,2. The higher the other partys estimate of his or her own cost of delay or impasse, the weaker the other partys resistance point will be.,3. The less the other values an issue, the lower their resistance point will be.,4. The more the other believes that you value an issue, the lower their resistance point may be.,2. Tactical Tasks,There are four important tactical tasks for a negotiator in a distributive bargaining situation to consider:,(1) assess the other partys target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.,(2) manage the other partys impressions of a negotiators target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.,(3) modify the other partys perceptions of his own target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.,(4) manipulate the other partys actual cost of delaying or terminating negotiation.,2.1 Assess the other partys target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiations,The negotiator can pursue two general routes to achieve this task:,Obtain information indirectly about the background factors behind an issue (indirect assessment).,Obtain information directly from the other party about their target and resistance point (direct assessment),.,2.2 Manage the Other Partys Impressions,An important tactical task for negotiators is to control the information sent to the other party about your target and resistance points, while simultaneously guiding him or her to form a preferred impression of them.,Negotiators need to screen information about their positions and to represent them as they would like the other to believe them.,Screening Activities,.,Direct Action to Alter Impressions,.,Screening Activities,The simplest way to screen a position is to say and do as little as possible. “Silence is gold.”,Another approach, available when group negotiations are conducted through a representative is calculated incompetence.,Reduce the number of people who can actively reveal information.,Present a great many items for negotiations, only a few of which are truly important to the presenter .,Direct Action to Alter Impressions,Many actions can be taken to present facts that will that will enhance their position or make it appear stronger to the other party.,Negotiators should justify their positions and desired outcomes in order to influence the other partys impressions.,Displaying emotional reaction to facts, proposals, and possible outcomes is another form of direct action.,Taking direct action to alter anothers impression raises several potential hazards.,2.3 Modify the Other Partys Perceptions,There are several approaches to modifying the other partys perceptions:,Interpret for the other party what the outcomes of his or her proposal will be.,Another approach to modifying the perceptions is to conceal information,.,2.4 Manipulate the Actual Cost of Delay or Termination,There are three ways to manipulate the cost of delay in negotiation:,(1),Disruptive Action,.,Increase the cost of not reaching a negotiated agreement.,(2),Alliance with Outsiders,.,Involve the other parties who can somehow influence the outcomes in the process.,(3),Schedule Manipulation.,The negotiation scheduling process can often put one party at a considerable disadvantage.& The opportunities to increase or alter the timing of negotiation vary widely across negotiation domain.,3. Positions Taken during Negotiation,Effective distributive bargainers need to understand the process of making positions during bargaining, including the importance of opening offer, opening stance, and the role of making concessions throughout the negotiation process.,Changes in position are usually accompanied by new information concerning the others intentions, the value of outcomes, and likely zones for settlement.,3.1 Opening Offers,The fundamental question is whether the opening offer should be exaggerated or modest.,There are at least two reasons that an exaggerated opening offer is advantageous.,Two disadvantageous of exaggerated opening offer are:,(,1) it maybe summarily rejected by the other party; (2) it communicates an attitude of toughness that maybe harmful to long-term relationships,.,3.2 Opening Stance,Will you be competitive or moderate?,It is important for negotiators to think carefully about the messages that the wish to signal with their opening stance and subsequent concessions.,To communicate effectively, a negotiator should try to send a consistent messages through both opening offer and stance.,3.3 Initial Concessions,First concession conveys a message, frequently a symbolic one to the other party that how you will proceed.,Firmness may actually shorten negotiations, there is also the very real possibility, however, it will be reciprocated by the other.,There are good reasons for adopting a flexible position.,3.4 Role of Concessions,Concessions are central to negotiation.,Negotiators also generally resent a take-it-or-leave-it approach.,Parties feel better about a settlement when the negotiation involved a progression of concession.,A reciprocal concession cannot be haphazard.,To encourage further concession from the other party, negotiators sometimes link their concessions to a prior concession made by the other party.,3.5 Pattern of Concession Making,Figure 2.4,Pattern of Concession Making for Two Negotiators,1,5,3,2,4,5,4,3,2,1,Concession Number,Size of Concessions (in dollars),0,=Georges concessions,=Marios concessions,3.6 Final Offers,A negotiator might simply let the absence of any further concessions that convey the message in spite of urging the other party.,One way negotiators may convey the message that an offer is the one is to make the last concession more substantial.,4. Commitment,A key concept in creating as bargaining position is that of commitment. One definition of commitment is the taking of a bargaining position with some explicit or implicit pledge regarding the future course of action.,The purpose of commitment is to remove ambiguity about the actors intended course of action.,A commitment is often interpreted by the other party as a threat.,4.1 Tactical Considerations in Using Commitments,Commitments exchange the flexibility for certainty for action, but they create difficulties if one wants to move to a new position.,When one makes commitments one should also make contingency plans for a graceful exit should it be needed.,4.2 Establishing a Commitment,A,commitment statement has three properties: a high degree of,finality, a high degree of,specificity, and a clear statement of,consequences,.,S,everal ways to create a commitment:,public pronouncement,linking with an outside base,increase the prominence of demands,reinforce the threat or promise,4.3,Preventing the Other Party from Committing Prematurely,O,ne way to prevent the other party from establishing a committed position is to deny his or her the necessary time.,A,nother approach is to ignore or downplay a threat by not acknowledging the other partys commitment, or even by making a joke about it.,T,here are times, however, when it is to a negotiators advantageous for the other party become committed.,4.4 Finding Ways to Abandon a Committed Position,F,our avenues for escaping commitment:,Play a way out,Let it die silently,Restate the commitment,Minimize the damage,A commitment position is a powerful tool in negotiation, it is also a rigid tool and must therefore be used with care.,5. Closing the Deal,S,everal tactics are available to negotiators for closing a deal:,Provide alternatives,Assume the close,Split the dif,f,erences,Exploding the offers,Sweeteners,6. Hardball Tactics,S,uch tactics are designed to pressure negotiators to do things they would not otherwise do, and their presence usually disguises the users adherence to a decidedly distributive bargaining approach.,D,ealing with typical hardball tactics,T,ypical hardball tactics,6.1 D,ealing With Typical Hardball Tactics-1,How best to respond to a tactic depends on your goals and the broader context of the negotiation.,F,our main options that negotiators have for responding to typical hardball tactics:,Ignore them,Discuss them,Respond in kind,Co-opt the other party,6.2 T,ypical Hardball Tactics -1,G,ood Cop/Bad Cop,W,eaknesses: relatively transparent; much more difficult to enact than to read.,Lowball/Highball,T,heory: the extreme offer will cause the other party to revaluate his or her own opening offer and more closer to or beyond resistance point.,Risk: the other party will think negotiating is a waste of time and will stop negotiating.,The best way to deal with: ask for a more reasonable opening offer from the other party.,Good preparation needed.,6.2 T,ypical Hardball Tactics -2,Bogey,Negotiators using the bogey tactic pretend that an issue of little or no importance to them is quite important.,This tactic is fundamentally deceptive, and it can be a difficult to enact.,Bogeys occurs more often by omission than commission.,The Nibble,Negotiators using the bogey tactic,ask for a proportionally small concession on a item that hasnt been discussed previously in order to close the deal.,Two ways to combat the nibble,.,6.2 T,ypical Hardball Tactics -3,Chicken,Negotiators using this tactic combine a large bluff with a threatened action to force the other party to “chicken out” and give them what they want.,Weakness: It turns negotiation into a serious game in which one or both parties find it difficult to distinguish reality from postured negotiation positions.,It is very difficult for negotiators to defend against.,6.2 T,ypical Hardball Tactics -4,Intimidation,They all attempt to force the other party to agree by means of an emotional poly, usually anger or fear.,Another form of intimidation includes increasing the appearance of legitimacy.,Guilt can also be used as a form of intimidation.,Two effective strategies for dealing
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