资源描述
Chapter 3 Morphology1n nMorphology,asasub-branchoflinguistics,referstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Generallyspeaking,morphologycanfurtherdividedintotwobroadcategories,namely,inflectional(屈折)morphologyandderivationalmophology,whicharebothconcernedwiththesmallestunitatthegrammaticallevel.21.WordWordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiveaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwrittenrecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwritten1.1 Three senses of“word”:1.1 Three senses of“word”:1)1)A physically definable unit:A physically definable unit:WordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorWordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.lettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term:2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term:boy,boysboy,boyscheck,checks,checked,checkingcheck,checks,checked,checking 33)A grammatical unit:sentence clause phraseword morpheme41.2 Identification of words1)1)StabilityStability:theconstituentpartsofacomplex:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedwordcannotberearrangedchairmanchairmanmanchairmanchairTheThechairmanchairmanlookedattheaudience.lookedattheaudience.TheaudiencelookedattheTheaudiencelookedatthechairmanchairman.2)2)Relative uninterruptibilityRelative uninterruptibility:Newelementscannot:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.partsinaword.disappointmentdis+appoint+mentdisappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.Paul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.53)A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,e.g.n n-Is Jane coming tonight?-Possibly.n nHi.n nWonderful.61.3 Classification of words1)Variable vs.invariable words:Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.72)2)Grammatical words vs.lexical wordsGrammatical words vs.lexical words:GrammaticalwordsGrammaticalwords:expressgrammatical:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,meanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsarticles,pronounsLexicalwordsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,those:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,whichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.ThelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofaThelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(language(contentwordscontentwords)andthegrammatical)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofawordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(sentencetogether(functionwordsfunctionwords).).83)3)Closed-class words vs.open-class wordsClosed-class words vs.open-class words:Closed-classClosed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixed:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,added.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.articles,etc.Open-classOpen-class:Awordwhosemembershipisin:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,principleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsadjectives,adverbsNote:Note:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitThedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:seems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outregarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,beof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansof;meansof;AuxiliaryverbsAuxiliaryverbs94)Word class:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Tenwordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,numeral,interjection,article.10Some newSome new categoriescategories:A.ParticlesA.Particles(小品词小品词):theinfinitemarker():theinfinitemarker(toto),),thenegativemarker(thenegativemarker(notnot),thesubordinate),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getunitsinphrasalverbs(getbyby,do,doupup,look,look backback,turnturn inin,etcetc.)B.AuxiliariesB.Auxiliaries(助动词助动词):usedtoberegardedas):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,suchasseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,suchasdo,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,do,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,etc.etc.11C.Pro-formC.Pro-form(替代形式替代形式):referstotheclosedsetsof):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforaitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(nominalgroup(名词词组名词词组)orasinglenoun.)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjectivePro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Sois:Yourpenisred.Soisminemine.Pro-verbPro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhe:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhediddid.Pro-adverbPro-adverb:HehopeshellwinandIhope:HehopeshellwinandIhopesoso too.too.Pro-locativePro-locative(代处所词代处所词):Jameshiding):Jameshidingtherethere,behindthedoor.behindthedoor.12D.DeterminersD.Determiners(限定词限定词):wordswhichareused):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethephrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.nounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allthe,a(n),some,allThereareTherearethreethreesubclassesofdeterminers:subclassesofdeterminers:1)1)Predeterminers:Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifththreetimes,one-third,one-fifth2)2)CentraldeterminersCentraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,theirneither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their133)3)PostdeterminersPostdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(cardinalnumerals(基数词基数词),ordinal),ordinalnumerals(numerals(序数词序数词),generalordinals(),generalordinals(一般顺序词一般顺序词):):next,next,last,past,(an)other,additionallast,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikeandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,amany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofgreatdealof,agreatnumberofn nWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderoftogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+predeterminers+centraldeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminerspostdeterminers.14Withineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveWithineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.ofeachother.*their all trouble all their trouble*their all trouble all their trouble*five the all boys all the five boys*five the all boys all the five boys*all this boy all these boys*all this boy all these boys*all both girls*all both girlsButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.beforecardinalnumerals.the first two days the first two days another three weeks another three weeks15The formation of wordMorphemes:Morphemes:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaTechnically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofasystemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofawordareknownaswordareknownasmorphemesmorphemes.They.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:themselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,manchairman:chair,mantownhall:town,halltownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-sboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingchecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-ment16Morpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.WordsmayconsistWordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.ofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.n n1)morphemeboy,desire1)morphemeboy,desiren n2)morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble2)morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+blen n3)morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity3)morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ityn n4)morphemegentle+man+li+ness,4)morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityun+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityn n5)morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness5)morphemeun+gentle+man+li+nessn n6)morphemedis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism6)morphemedis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismn n7)morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism7)morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism17Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme1)1)Sememe vs.morphemeSememe vs.morphemeSememeSememe(义素义素)isthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.isthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.e.g.Themorphemee.g.Themorphemesshasonlyonesememe:hasonlyonesememe:PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.TherelationshipbetweensememeandmorphemeTherelationshipbetweensememeandmorpheme,five,fivemappingandnon-mappingoccasions:mappingandnon-mappingoccasions:i.Onemorphemevs.onesememei.Onemorphemevs.onesememeOnemorphemehasonlyonesememe.Onemorphemehasonlyonesememe.e.g.e.g.lessless,meaningWITHOUT,meaningWITHOUTfearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,fearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechlessshameless,faceless,speechless18n nii.Onemorphemevs.morethanonesememeii.Onemorphemevs.morethanonesememeOnemorphememayhavetwoormorethanOnemorphememayhavetwoormorethantwosememes.e.g.twosememes.e.g.a-a-fivesememesfivesememes1)1)away,apartaway,apart“分离，离开分离，离开”,2)2)aboard,asideaboard,aside“朝朝，向，向”3)asleep,awash,ablush3)asleep,awash,ablush“在在，处于，处于,的的”4)atypical,asymmetry,abnormal4)atypical,asymmetry,abnormal“不，无，非不，无，非”5)arise,await,arouse,ashamed5)arise,await,arouse,ashamed 表示加强的意思表示加强的意思19n niii.Onesememevs.morethanonemorphemeiii.Onesememevs.morethanonemorphemen nOnesememeisexpressedwithtwoormoreOnesememeisexpressedwithtwoormorethantwomorphemes.thantwomorphemes.n n表示表示nono和和nonnon意义的语素除了意义的语素除了a-a-之外，还有其他的之外，还有其他的语素，例如语素，例如e-,dis-,il-,in-,im-,ir-,ne-,un-,non-e-,dis-,il-,in-,im-,ir-,ne-,un-,non-等。等。amoral,disagree,erostrateamoral,disagree,erostrate(无喙的无喙的),illiterate,illiterate,impolite,impolite,neither,untidy,irregular,neither,untidy,irregular,nonsmokernonsmoker20n niv.Morphemesthathavenospecificsememen nTherearealsomorphemesthathavenospecificsememe,butmayhelpchangegrammaticalandsemanticcategories.n ne.g.en-enjoy21n nv.Functionchangesinbothsememeandmorphemewithoutmorphemechangen nTheremayalsobenomorphemechangeinaword,butboththegrammaticalandthesemanticcategorieswouldchangeaccordingtothecontextitoccurs.n ne.g.runrunacompany,inashortrun22Lexeme(词位)Lexeme:theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWrite-write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFat-fat,fatter,fattest23Allomorphn nSomeSome morphemesmorphemes havehave aa singlesingle formform inin allall contexts,contexts,suchsuch asas“dog,“dog,bark,bark,cat”,etc.cat”,etc.InIn otherother instances,instances,theretheremaymaybebesomesomevariation,variation,thatthatis,is,aamorphememorphememaymayhavehavealternatealternateshapesshapesororphoneticphoneticforms.forms.TheyTheyarearesaidsaidtotobebethethe allomorphsallomorphs ofof thethe morpheme,morpheme,thethe pluralplural morphememorphememayberepresentedby:mayberepresentedby:n nmap-mapmap-maps ssdog-dogsdog-dogs szzn nwatch-watchesizcountry-countriesizwatch-watchesizcountry-countriesizn nmouse-mmouse-mi iceaiox-oxceaiox-oxenennnn ntooth-ttooth-teeeethsheep-shthsheep-sheeeep pn nphenomenon-phenomenphenomenon-phenomena an nEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.pluralmorpheme.24n nLikephoneme,morphemeisanabstractunit.n nMorphemesareputbetweenbraceslike.n nSomemorphemicformsrepresentdifferentmorphemesandthushavesememes.25n n2)2)Morpheme vs.PhonemeMorpheme vs.Phonemen nPhoneme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundPhoneme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundn nMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammarMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammarn nThecorrespondencebetweenthetwolevelsofThecorrespondencebetweenthetwolevelsoflanguage:language:MORPHONOLOGYMORPHONOLOGYororMORPHONEMICS-MORPHONEMICS-abranchof-abranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,thephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,andcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthatandcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms.So,itstudiestheaffectthephonemeforms.So,itstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.interrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.26n nThereareseveraloccasionsoftherelationship:Thereareseveraloccasionsoftherelationship:n ni.Asinglephonemevs.asinglemorphemei.Asinglephonemevs.asinglemorphemeAsinglephonememayrepresentasingleAsinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.e.g.morpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.e.g.an nii.Asinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeii.Asinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.Morphemesmaybemonophonemic,phoneme.Morphemesmaybemonophonemic,monosyllabicorpolysyllabic.e.g.monosyllabicorpolysyllabic.e.g.breikbreakbreikbreak27n niv.Morphemicconditionsiv.Morphemicconditionsn nMorphemeshapesvaryaccordingtobothphonologicalMorphemeshapesvaryaccordingtobothphonologicalconditionsandtotheconditionsoftheirown.conditionsandtotheconditionsoftheirown.n nTherearetwocases:Therearetwocases:n na)a)PhonologicallyconditionedPhonologicallyconditioned:TheformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyTheformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.phonologicalfactors.injusticeimperfectillogicalirregularinjusticeimperfectillogicalirregularinefficientimpenetrableillegalirresponsibleinefficientimpenetrableillegalirresponsible infirmimpossibleilliterateirresolvableinfirmimpossibleilliterateirresolvable 28n nb)b)MorphologicallyconditionedMorphologicallyconditioned:MorphemescanalsobeconditionedbyMorphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors.morphologicalfactors.Threerequirements:Threerequirements:n nFirstFirst,alltheallomorphsshouldhavethesame,alltheallomorphsshouldhavethesamesememe,e.g.thepluralmorphemesememe,e.g.thepluralmorphemen nSecondSecond,alltheallomorphsshouldbein,plementarydistribution.n nThirdThird,allomorphsthathavethesamesememe,allomorphsthathavethesamesememeshouldoccurinparallelformation.shouldoccurinparallelformation.29Classification of morphemesn nMorphemescanbeclssifiedbothsemanticallyandstructurally.Semantically,morphemesaregroupedintotwogeneralcategories:rootmorphemesandaffixational morphemes,orsimplyspeaking,rootsandaffixes.Structurally,theyalsofallintotwoclasses:free morphemesandbound morphemes.30Freemorpheme&boundmorphemen nFreemorpheme-isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.n nBoundmorpheme-isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.31Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemen nDerivationalmorphemes-Derivationalmorphemes-themorphemeswhich-themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.changethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.correct-correct-inincorrect,edit-correct,edit-coco-edit,modern-modern-edit,modern-modernizeize,length-lengthlength-lengthenen,fool-fool,fool-foolishish,etc.,etc.n nInflectionalmorphemes-Inflectionalmorphemes-themorphemeswhicharefor-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theysuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.lexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:a)number:tabletables smatchmatche es s factorifactorie es s b)b)person,finitenessandaspect:person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talktalk/talks s/talk/talkinging/talk/talkededc)case:c)case:John/JohnJohn/Johnss d)comparison:tall/talld)comparison:tall/tallerer/tall/tallestest32Someothertermsn nAffixesn nRootn nStemn nBase33Affixesn nAffixesarelexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords,suchasdis-inthewordsdislikeanddishonest,andfulincarefulandhopeful.Inotherwords,anaffixisusedonlytoaddtooralterthemeaningofaroottowhichitisattached.34Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintoandaregenerallyclassifiedintoinflectionalinflectionalandandderivationalderivationalones.Thederivationalones.Thederivationalaffixescanbedividedintothreesubtypes:affixescanbedividedintothreesubtypes:prefixprefix(前缀前缀),),suffixsuffix(后缀后缀),and),andinfixinfix(中缀中缀).).n nPrefix:Prefix:inin-,-,para-,mini-para-,mini-，un-,dis-,sub-un-,dis-,sub-n nSuffix:Suffix:-ise,-tion-ise,-tion，-ful,-ly,-ness,-ment-ful,-ly,-ness,-mentn nInfix:Infix:foot/ffoot/feeeet,goose/gt,goose/geeeese,se,morphmorpho ology,phonlogy,phone etictic,idiomidioma atic,tic,habithabitu ual,ratal,rati icide,Platocide,Platon nic ic 35Rootn nArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,n n“care”in“carefully”,n n“nation”in“internationalism”,n n“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”,n n“gress”in“progressive”36Arootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.Arootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.FirstFirst,freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandby,freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.themselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.blackblack(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith);(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith);correctcorrect(incorrect,correctness).(incorrect,correctness).FreerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberFreerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.inalanguage.SecondSecond,therearerelativelyafewboundrootmorphemes,therearerelativelyafewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.inEnglish,e.g.-ceive-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain-tain(retain,contain,(retain,contain,maintain);maintain);-cur-cur(incur,recur,occur);(incur,recur,occur);-spect-spect(inspect,(inspect,respect,expect,suspect,prospect,spectator,respect,expect,suspect,prospect,spectator,spectacles,etc.)spectacles,etc.)37Third,afewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.Sleepandchildsleptandchildren38Stemn nAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)canbeadded.“Friend”in“friends”,and“friendship”in“friendships”.n nThus,astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”in“undesirables”.39Basen nAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.40Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&basen nAAbasebasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&canbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedderivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;onlybyinflectionalaffixes;n nAAbasebaseisderivationallyanalyzable,e.g.isderivationallyanalyzable,e.g.“undesire”undesire”in“in“undesirable”undesirable”whilearootcannotwhilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.“befurtheranalyzed,e.g.“desiredesire”in“in“unundesirdesirableable”.”.n nRoot,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.“desire”desire”in“in“desirdesired”ed”;“;“Undesirable”Undesirable”inin“undesirableundesirables”s”iseitherastemorabase;iseitherastemorabase;“Desirable”Desirable”in“in“unundesirable”desirable”isonlyabase.isonlyabase.41Word formationn nWordformation:theprocessofhowwordsareformedn nTwosub-types:n nThecompositionaltypeCOMPOUNDn nThederivationaltypeDERIVATION42n ni.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojoinmorethanoneseparatewordtoproduceasingleform smartphone,cutting-edge,domainname,cloakroom,state-of-the-art,nursinghome.Incompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.43n nCompoundsCompoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:canbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:thetheendocentric
展开阅读全文