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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYREFLECTION FOR ACTIONREFLECTION FOR ACTIONCanadian EditionCanadian EditionODonnell,DAmico,Schmid,Reeve,SmithCognitive DevelopmentChapter 2 Cognitive DevelopmentThemes of the ChapterBiology and maturation underlie all Biology and maturation underlie all developmental processesdevelopmental processesGrowth-promoting experience must Growth-promoting experience must occur in order for cognitive development occur in order for cognitive development to be fully realizedto be fully realizedThere are many school-related There are many school-related experiences that help learners realize experiences that help learners realize their developmental potentialstheir developmental potentialsEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionGuiding QuestionsHow does education enrich brain development?How does education enrich brain development?How does Piaget explain cognitive How does Piaget explain cognitive development?development?What are the stages of cognitive development?What are the stages of cognitive development?How can teachers apply Piagets theory in the How can teachers apply Piagets theory in the classroom?classroom?(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionGuiding Questions(continued)(continued)How does Vygotsky explain sociocognitive How does Vygotsky explain sociocognitive development?development?How can teachers apply Vygotskys theory How can teachers apply Vygotskys theory in the classroom?in the classroom?How does language develop?How does language develop?How can teachers use their knowledge of How can teachers use their knowledge of cognitive development when working with cognitive development when working with diverse learners and students with special diverse learners and students with special needs?needs?Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionBrain DevelopmentBrain structure and functionHow does experience(education)affect brain development?Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionBrain Structure and FunctionHippocampus processes a persons new experiencesAmygdala generate negative emotions as the brains warning systemNeurons make all brain functions possibleEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionFigure 2.1 Brain Structures and Their FunctionsEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionBrain Structure and FunctionExposure to a stimulating environment will stimulate neuronsWhen stimulated,neurons reach out to neighbouring neuronsWith repeated stimulation,the number of connections between neurons increases and the neurons bond together This pattern of connections is known as memoryEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionBrain Structure and FunctionEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionHow Education Affects Brain DevelopmentNeural plasticity brains capacity for structural change as the result of experienceStimulating environments give the brain a great deal of information to process,store,remember,and later use to solve problemsThe information may facilitate greater neuronal connectivityEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionCognitive DevelopmentPiagets TheoryPiagets TheoryAdaptations are inborn process of adjusting to the are inborn process of adjusting to the demands of the environmentdemands of the environmentSchemas are basic structures for organizing are basic structures for organizing informationinformation Behavioural schemas are mental representations of Behavioural schemas are mental representations of physical actionsphysical actions Symbolic schemas are language-based mental Symbolic schemas are language-based mental representations of objects and eventsrepresentations of objects and events Operations are mental actions to solve a problemOperations are mental actions to solve a problemEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionAssimilation and AccommodationAssimilation is a process of incorporation in which some outside event is brought into a persons way of thinkingAccommodation is a modification process in which an existing schema is changed or modified to make sense of something that is new and differentEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionDisequilibriumDisequilibrium is a state of cognitive conflict that arises when ones existing way of thinking is not confirmed by experience Using Using adaptation a person can move a person can move from disequilibrium to equilibriumfrom disequilibrium to equilibriumEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionFigure 2.3 Origins and Consequences of DisequilibriumEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionPiagets Stages in Cognitive DevelopmentEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionSensorimotor StagePrimary circular reactions(1-4 months)Some actions (1-4 months)Some actions are satisfying and repeatedare satisfying and repeatedSecondary circular reactions(4-8 months)Some (4-8 months)Some actions are found to have interesting effects on the actions are found to have interesting effects on the environmentenvironmentGoal-directed behaviour(8-12 months)Intentions (8-12 months)Intentions replace reflexesreplace reflexesTertiary circular reactions(12-18 months)Curiosity (12-18 months)Curiosity leads to experimenting with objectsleads to experimenting with objectsSymbolic problem solving(18-24 months)Symbolic (18-24 months)Symbolic images of environmental objects are created images of environmental objects are created Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionObject Permanence understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or detected by other sensesSensorimotor StageEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionPreoperational StageChildren create symbolic schemas to represent the objects and events around themChildren take part in pretend playEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionConcrete Operations StageChildren can develop an internal mental activity that allows them to revise or alter a symbol or image to reach a logical conclusionThis mental manipulation can only be with concrete objects and events that lie in front of themEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionCapacities of Concrete-Operational ThinkingAnimism Belief that all things are alive and livingBelief that all things are alive and living In concrete operations children can tell the difference In concrete operations children can tell the difference between animate and inanimate objectsbetween animate and inanimate objectsCentration Focusing on an objects most salient feature while Focusing on an objects most salient feature while neglecting equally important but less perceptually neglecting equally important but less perceptually salient featuressalient features In concrete operations children can focus on more In concrete operations children can focus on more than one item at a timethan one item at a time(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionCapacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking(continued)(continued)Transductive reasoning Causal understanding in which a child Causal understanding in which a child thinks that when two events occur thinks that when two events occur simultaneously,one must have caused simultaneously,one must have caused the otherthe otherIn concrete operations children have a In concrete operations children have a better understanding of cause-and-better understanding of cause-and-effect relationships than in the effect relationships than in the preoperational stagepreoperational stage(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionEgocentrism Viewing the world from ones own Viewing the world from ones own perspective while failing to recognize perspective while failing to recognize that other people might have a different that other people might have a different perspective or point of viewperspective or point of viewIn concrete operations children are In concrete operations children are more aware of others perspectives more aware of others perspectives than they were in the preoperational than they were in the preoperational stagestage(continued)(continued)Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionReversibility Capability to reverse an action by mentally Capability to reverse an action by mentally performing its oppositeperforming its opposite In concrete operations children can In concrete operations children can mentally undo an actionmentally undo an action Classification Grouping objects into categoriesGrouping objects into categories In concrete operations children advance to In concrete operations children advance to two-dimensional classificationstwo-dimensional classifications(continued)(continued)Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionSeriationMentally arranging or ordering a set of Mentally arranging or ordering a set of objects along a quantifiable dimension,objects along a quantifiable dimension,such as heightsuch as heightIn concrete operations children arrange In concrete operations children arrange objects in serial order from shortest to objects in serial order from shortest to longestlongestCapacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking(continued)(continued)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionConservationThis is the crucial operational schema that defines the concrete operations stageIt is the understanding that appearance alterations do not change the essential properties of an objectEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionFigure 2.5 Three Piagetian Tests of a Childs Capacity to ConserveEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionGenerate a list of classroom activities that will involve the following:Transductive reasoningTransductive reasoningConservationConservationAnimismAnimismReversibilityReversibilityClassificationClassificationSeriationSeriationCapacities of Concrete-Operational ThinkingEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionFormal Operations StageWith formal-operational thinking,thinking can be independent of concrete reality and involve systematic problem solvingInductive reasoning is the abstraction of is the abstraction of a general principle from a variety of a general principle from a variety of examplesexamplesDeductive reasoning is drawing is drawing information or hypotheses out of a information or hypotheses out of a general premise or a sample of general premise or a sample of evidenceevidenceEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionYour TurnDevelop a task for each stage of Piagets theory of cognitive developmentJustify why each task is appropriate for each stage(See p.49 in your textbook for teaching(See p.49 in your textbook for teaching techniques to enrich formal operations in the techniques to enrich formal operations in the classroom)classroom)Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionThree Applications of Piagets TheoryBe sensitive to individual differencesMotivate by stimulating curiosityGuessing and feedbackGuessing and feedbackSuspenseSuspenseControversyControversyPromote discovery-based learningEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionLimitations of Piagets TheorySometimes underestimates the intellectual capacity of infants,preschoolers,and elementary school studentsErrs when it says that development is marked by qualitative changes Robbie Case at University of TorontoRobbie Case at University of Toronto Studied the development of learning strategies Studied the development of learning strategies in terms of changes in in terms of changes in control structures involved in the solution of specific problemsinvolved in the solution of specific problemsEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionLimitations of Piagets TheoryDiscovery learning is not as effective as guided discovery learningNeglects the importance of culture and social guidance in cognitive developmentEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionSociocognitive DevelopmentVygotsky argued that cognitive development emerges mostly out of the childs social interactions with parents,teachers,peers,and other competent members of societyVygotsky advocated guided participation instead of discovery learningEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionZone of Proximal DevelopmentPredevelopment is a level of competence at is a level of competence at which a student is unable to solve problems in which a student is unable to solve problems in that domainthat domainZone of proximal development is a level of is a level of competence on a task in which the student competence on a task in which the student cannot yet master the task on his or her own but cannot yet master the task on his or her own but can accomplish that same task with appropriate can accomplish that same task with appropriate guidance from a more capable partnerguidance from a more capable partnerActual development is a level at which students is a level at which students are capable of solving problems independentlyare capable of solving problems independentlyEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionScaffoldingThe guidance,support,and tutelage provided by a teacher during social interaction designed to advance students current level of skill and understandingProvides supportExtends the range of what a learner can doAllows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossibleUsed only when neededEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionInstructional Conversations with Groups of LearnersIRE discourse model:conversation during teaching that follows an initiate,respond,evaluate scriptPQS discourse model:conversation during teaching that follows a probe,question,scaffold scriptEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionSocially Shared CognitionA shared understanding of a problem that emerges during group interaction that would not have been achieved by any individual member of the group acting aloneEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionIntersubjectivityThe unique product that arises from social interaction in which the interaction partners come to a shared understanding of how to manage the problem-solving situationWhat are some examples of intersubjective experiences?Educational Psychology,Canadian EditionTransfer of ResponsibilityTransfer of responsibility occurs as the student accomplished subgoals of the activity,gains skill and understanding,and shows less need for assistanceEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionRole of Language in Cognitive DevelopmentFor Piaget,thought precedes language,and language is a by-product of cognitive developmentFor Vygotsky,language is a social bridge to connect a mentors advanced development with a novices immature development,and language creates cognitive developmentEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionThree Types of Private SpeechSelf-guidance remarks about ones own activity that are public but not directed to anyone in particularReading aloud reading books or other materials aloud,sounding out words,or silently mouthing wordsInaudible muttering quiet remarks that cannot be heard by an observerEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionInfluence of Cultural ToolsFirst level of sociocognitive development face-to-face,one-on-one interaction between a competent member of the culture and a less competent memberSecond level of sociocognitive development through the cultures history and technology,effective cultural tools for solving problemsEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionImportance of Peers to DevelopmentSociocognitive development(Vygotsky)more able peers can help as much as a teacher and are usually closer to the learners zone of proximal developmentCognitive development(Piaget)peers can create cognitive conflict and thus promote developmentEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionApplications of Vygotskys TheoryTeacher as a guide,mentorPeers as guides,mentorsCulture as guide,mentorA new view of motivationEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionCanadian Research into PracticeKieran Egan at Simon Fraser Kieran Egan at Simon Fraser University,proposes a “modified University,proposes a “modified VygotskianVygotskian approach”that draws upon approach”that draws upon and extends the notion of cognitive and extends the notion of cognitive toolstools By definition,oral experience has to By definition,oral experience has to precede literacyprecede literacy“Cognitive Toolkits”enable us to make“Cognitive Toolkits”enable us to make sense of the worldsense of the world Teachers should draw upon the sense Teachers should draw upon the sense of wonderof wonderEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionLanguage Development Innate language acquisition deviceInnate language acquisition device Children learn the language of their culture Children learn the language of their culture naturally,mostly by listening(18 months to six naturally,mostly by listening(18 months to six years of age)years of age)Syntax:children have a biological preparedness:children have a biological preparedness for structure of languagefor structure of languagePhonology and semantics:these develop:these develop rapidly from age 2 through preschool rapidly from age 2 through preschool Role of a teacher:to provide many Role of a teacher:to provide many opportunities for children to use language to opportunities for children to use language to interact sociallyinteract sociallyEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionLanguage Disabilities and Brain FunctioningDyslexia reading disability in which words are read from right to left and letters of the same configuration are reversedAphasia language disability in which the person has difficulty understanding or producing speechEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionTechnology Support for Young Readers&Readers with Special NeedsTalking books for young readers Digital or computerized versions of traditional Digital or computerized versions of traditional picture storybooks can promote phonological picture storybooks can promote phonological awareness,vocabulary development,and awareness,vocabulary development,and reading comprehensionreading comprehensionElectronic books for students with special needsBooks with large print or audio and text-to-Books with large print or audio and text-to-speech capabilities function as assistive speech capabilities function as assistive technologytechnologyEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionText-Based Scaffolding DevicesTransitional resources convert text to convert text to speech or definitionsspeech or definitionsIllustrative resources add pictures,charts add pictures,charts and videos to the textand videos to the textSummarizing resources overview of text overview of text with concept map or chapter outlinewith concept map or chapter outlineNotational resources promote interaction promote interaction with note taking or outlining with note taking or outlining Enrichment resources informational informational sidebars,historical background,and links sidebars,historical background,and links to primary resourcesto primary resourcesEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionSecond Language Acquisition and BilingualismSecond language acquisitionRelatively easy during childhood Relatively easy during childhood Noticeably more difficult after pubertyNoticeably more difficult after pubertyBilingualismThe use of two or more languages in The use of two or more languages in everyday lifeeveryday lifeProficiency in one language is highly Proficiency in one language is highly related to proficiency in a second languagerelated to proficiency in a second languageEducational Psychology,Canadian EditionCopyrightCopyright 2008 John Wiley&Sons Canada,Ltd.All rights reserved.Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright(the Canadian copyright licensing agency)is unlawful.Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department,John Wiley&Sons Canada,Ltd.The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale.The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors,omissions,or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.Educational Psychology,Canadian Edition
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