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Unit OneThe Evolution of Management as a Field of Study Glossary evolution: n . The process of developing. 发展 generalize: v. To infer from many particulars. 概括. autobiography: n. The biography of a person written by that person. 自传 memoir: n. An account of the personal experiences of an author. 自传 extreme: n. Being in or attaining the greatest or highest degree; very intense: 极度的 anthropology: n. The scientific study of the origin, the behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development of human beings. 人类学 anthropologist: n. someone who studies Anthropology人类学家 perspective: n. Subjective evaluation of relative significance; a point of view: 观点 approach: n. The method used in dealing with or accomplishing方法 contingency: n. A possibility that must be prepared for; a future emergency. 变化的情况 confrontation：n. Discord or a clash of opinions and ideas: 不和观点或思想的不和或冲撞： compromise: v. Something that combines qualities or elements of different things: 折衷 turnover: n. The number of workers hired by an establishment to replace those who have left in a given period of time. 人员更替数 dynamic: adj. Characterized by continuous change, activity, or progress: 不断变化的 incur: v. To acquire or come into (something usually undesirable); sustain: 获得 interdependent: adj. Mutually dependent: 互相依存的Glossary Glossary popularity: n. The quality or state of being popular, especially the state of being widely admired, accepted, or sought after. 普及 sole: adj.Of or relating to only one individual or group; exclusive: 单独的. reliance: n.The act of relying or the state of being reliant. 依赖依靠 sufficient: adj. Being as much as is needed. 充足的 characteristic: n. A feature that helps to identify, tell apart, or describe recognizably; a distinguishing mark or trait. 特性 alliance: n. The act of becoming allied or the condition of being allied: 结盟 demographic: n. Of or relating to demography. 人口统计 complement: v. To serve as a complement to: 补足Business School of Nnankai University Key Terms and Concepts Classical Approach (to Management) also call classical school （管理学）古典(研究)方法. A body of literature that represents the earliest attempts to define and describe the field of management. The approachs main focus is on formally prescribed relationships. Its primary means for acquiring knowledge are personal observation and case studies. Behavioral Approach (to Management) also called behavioral school to management, （管理学）行为（研究）方法 here it refers to a body of literature characterized by its concern for human behavior in the work environment. The schools primary means for acquiring knowledge is scientific method, with emphasis on research. Chronologically, the behavioral approach to management thought followed the classical approach. Its first phase was identified with human relations theory, popular in the 1940s and early 1950s. Its second phase was the behavioral science approach, which came into popular use in the early 1950s. Management Science Approach: Also known as Management Science School 管理学科学（研究）方法. A body of literature characterized by its use if mathematical and statistic techniques to build models for the solution of production and operations problems. The approachs primary means for acquiring knowledge is mathematical deduction. Contingency or Situational Approach (to Management): （管理学）权变（研究）方法： An analysis of management that emphasizes the fact that what managers do in practice depends on upon a given set of circumstances or the “situation” and that there is no single “best way” to manage.Key Terms and Concepts TextlThe modern era of management began early in the 20th century when classical theorists, economists, and industrial engineers offered a classical approach to increase the productivity of individuals and organizations. Both organizational growth and its increasing influence on our economy and standard of living are relatively recent in history; thus the study of management is relatively new. Many of the first individuals to study and write about management were practicing managers. They described their own experiences and tried to generalize the principles they believed could be applied in similar situations. Even today, a great deal of what we know about management comes from the autobiographies and memoirs of men and women who are or have been practicing managers. l Now, however, other individuals also are interested in management for scientific reasons. Social and behavioral scientists view the management of organizations as an extremely important social phenomenon worthy of study through scientific inquiry. As scientists, these men and women make no value judgments regarding good or bad management practices. Their objective is to understand and explain the practice of management.l Between the two extremes of management practice and management science are many individuals who have contributed to the study of management. They include engineers, sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, lawyers, economists, accountants, mathematicians, political scientists, and philosophers.Text Business School of Nnankai University l Such differing perspectives on the same subject cannot be neatly classified. Thus, as a manager, you will have at your disposal many ways of looking at managements tasks. Each may be more useful for some problems than for others. For example, a management theory that emphasizes employee satisfaction may be more helpful in dealing with a high employee turnover than with delays in production. Because there is no single, universally accepted management approach, you should be familiar with the various major theories.Text Business School of Nnankai University lThe three well-established approaches to management thought are the classical approach, which focuses on the task of managing work and organizations; the behavioral approach, which focuses on the task of managing people; and the management science approach, which focuses on the task of production and operations. Although these approaches evolved in historical sequence, later ideas have not always replaced early ones. Rather, each new approach has added to the knowledge of the previous ones. At the same time, each approach has continued to develop on its own.Text Business School of Nnankai University l During the last 30 years or so, there have been attempts to integrate the three approaches to managementclassical, behavioral, and management science. One of these attempts, the systems approach stresses that organizations must be viewed as total systems, with each part linked to every other part. Another, the contingency approach, stresses that the correctness of a managerial practice is contingent on how it fits the particular situation in which it is applied.Text Business School of Nnankai University lThe systems approach to management is really a way of thinking about management problems. It views an organization as a group of interrelated parts with a single purpose. Because the action of one part influences the others, managers cannot deal separately with individual parts. In solving problems, managers using the systems approach must view the organization as a dynamic whole and must try to anticipate the intended as well as unintended impacts of their decisions. Such managers do not solve individual problems. Rather, they intervene in a total system of integrated parts, using the management functions of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling. Text Business School of Nnankai University l The age-old confrontation between the production objective of low costs and the marketing objective of a broad product line is a good example of the interrelated nature of management problems. Each objective conflicts with the other. For example, to incur the lowest production costs, a firm would produce only one color and one style. To achieve the marketing objective, however, several models and several colors would be required but at a higher costs. In this situation, a compromise is necessary for the overall system to achieve its objective. The objectives of individual parts must be compromised to meet the objective of the entire firm.Text Business School of Nnankai University lThe systems approach forces managers to recognize that organizations are systems made up of interdependent parts and that a change in one part affects other parts. It seeks to identify the characteristics of jobs, people, and organizations, allowing managers to see the interdependence between the various segments of an organization. The basic idea of the contingency is that there is no best way to plan, organize, or control. Rather, manages must find different ways to fit different situations. A method highly effective in one situation may not work in other situations. In other words, the contingency approach seeks to match different situations with different management methods.Text Business School of Nnankai University l Actually, the idea of contingency, or situational, thinking is not new. During the 1920s, an early writer in the classical approach mentioned the “law of situation.” One scholar and writer in management noted that “different situations require different kinds of knowledge, and the man possessing the knowledge demanded by certain situation tends in the best managed businesses, other thing being equal, to become the leader in the moment. Text Business School of Nnankai University lThe contingency approach has grown in popularity over the last two decades because research has found that, given certain characteristics of a job and certain characteristics of people doing the job, specific management practices tend to work better than others. For example, rigid plans, clearly defined jobs, autocratic leadership, and tight controls have at times resulted in high productivity and satisfied workers. At other times, the opposite characteristics (general plans, vaguely defined jobs, democratic leadership, and loose controls) have produced the same results.Text Business School of Nnankai University l If, for instance, productivity needs to be increased, the manager should not automatically assume a new work method is needed (a classical solution) or that a new motivational approach needs to be tried (a behavioral solution). Instead, the manager should study the characteristics of the workers and the nature of the job, and his own leadership approach before deciding on a solution.Text Business School of Nnankai University TextlManagers around the globe use more of a contingency approach to survive. Sole reliance on a classical or a behavioral or a management science approach is not sufficient for organizations. The approaches that worked for Procter & Gamble for 50 years and the start-up of Haier or Legend Computer during the first few years must be modified to fit the changing global environment. Thus, the contingency view has become more relevant and prominent because of the following factors: Business School of Nnankai University TextIncreased globalization of enterprise and the need for more government-business alliances to compete internationally.Demands for ethical and socially responsive leadership.Changing demographics and skill requirements of the workforce.The emergence of new organizational structures that emphasize speed in reacting to environmental changes.Changing needs, preferences, and desires of employees for a job security, participation, ownership, and personal fulfillment. Business School of Nnankai University TextlAs the contingency approach suggests, the student of management preparing for the 21st century must learn multiple ways to compete, innovate, create, motivate, and lead. Both the systems approach and the contingency approach can provide valuable insights and complement the classical, behavioral, and management science approaches. Business School of Nnankai University Business School of Nnankai University
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