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o n t h e r o a dt o f u l l ys e l f-d r i v i n gWaymo Safety Reportou rm i s s ion Waymos mission is to bring self-driving technology to the world,making it safe and easy for people and things to move around.We believe our technology can improve mobility by giving people the freedom to get around,and save thousandsof lives now lost to traffic crashes.2Self-driving vehicles hold the promise to improve road safety and offer new mobility options to millionsof people.Whether theyre saving lives or helping people run errands,commute to work,or drop kids off at school,fully self-driving vehicles hold enormous potential to transform peoples lives for the better.Safety is at the core of Waymos missionits why we were founded over eight years ago as the Google Google self-drivinself-driving g cacar r p pr ro oj jectect.Every year,1.2 million lives are lost to traffic crashes around the world,and in the U.S.the number of tragedies is growing.A common element of these crashes is that 94%involve human error.Driving is not as safe or as easy as it should be,while distracted driving is on the rise.We believe our technology could save thousands of lives now lost to traffic crashes every year.Our commitment to safety is reflected in everything we do,from our company culture to how we design and test our technology.In this,our first Safety Report on Waymos fully self-driving technology,we detail Waymos work onand our commitment tosafety.This overview of our safety program underscores the important lessons learned through the 3.5 million miles Waymos vehicles have self-driven on public roads and through our billionsof miles of simulated driving.Were Building a Safer Driver for Everyoneintroduction Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving3Waymos Safety Report also addresses the U.S.Department of T ransportation(DOT)federal policy framework for autonomous vehicles:Automated Driving Systems 2.0:A Vision for Safety.The DOT framework outlines 12 safety design elements,and encourages companies testing and deploying self-driving systems to address each of these areas.Over the course of our Report,we will outline the processes relevant to each safety design element and how they underpin the development,testing,and deployment of fully self-driving vehicles.Fully self-driving vehicles will succeed in their promise and gain public acceptance only if they are safe.Thats why Waymo has been investing in safety and building the processes that give us the confidence that our self-driving vehicles can serve the publics need for safer transportation and better mobility.Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving41.Our System Safety Program:Safety by Design Areas Addressed by Waymos System Safety Program Safety Processes2.How Waymos Self-Driving Vehicles WorkThe Self-Driving SystemObject and Event Detection and Response:Our Vehicle Sensors Our Self-Driving SoftwareOperational Design Domain:Ensuring Our Vehicles Operate Safely Under Specific ConditionsMinimal Risk Condition(Fallback):Ensuring the Vehicle Can T ransition to a Safe Stop Data Recording and Post-Crash BehaviorSelf-Driving Vehicle Cybersecurity3.Testing and Validation Methods:Ensuring Our Vehicles Are Capable and SafeBase Vehicle SafetySelf-Driving Hardware Testing Self-Driving Software TestingBehavioral Competencies for Normal DrivingTesting the Fully Integrated Self-Driving VehicleT esting on Public RoadsT esting Crash Avoidance Capabilities Hardware Reliability and Durability T esting4.Interacting Safely with the PublicRider ExperienceAccessibility:Unlocking Opportunities for Those Who Cannot Drive Today Emergencies and Interacting With Law Enforcement and First Responders5.ConclusionAppendix:Scenario Types Used for Testing and ValidationAppendix A.Basic Behavioral Competency TestingAppendix B.Avoidance or Mitigation of Common Crash ScenariosGlossary End Notes101112131314151617181820212122252626282930313233343536384042table o f contents Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving5WWaymo aymo Saf Safe ety ty R Report eportOn On The The R Road oad to to Fully Fully Self-Driving Self-Driving 6 6At Waymo,were designing fully self-driving vehicles that make it safe and easy for everyone to get around.Self-driving Technology Can Save Lives and Improve MobilityThe World Around Us6S A F E T Y M O B I L I T Y AND QU A L I T Y O F L I F E S O C I E T Y 94percent of U.S.crashes involve human error.11.2m i l l i o n deaths worldwide due to vehicle crashesin 2013.237,461r o ad deat h s in the U.S.in 2016 and2.4 million injuries in 2015.32o u t o f 3people will be involved in a drunk drivingcrash in their lifetime.4$594b i l l i o n in harm from loss of life and injury each year.5$277b i l l i o n in annual economic costs.6$160b i l l i o n in gas burned and time lost each year.73m i l l i o n Americans age 40 and older are blind or have low vision.879percent of seniors age 65 and older living in car-dependent communities.942h o u r s wasted in traffic each year per person.77Generations of Self-Driving VehiclesMillion Real-World Miles on Public RoadsYears Self-Driving in More than 20 U.S.CitiesBillion Self-Driven Miles Simulated in 201643.582.5Every mile,in every car,is shared with the entire fleet,giving every Waymo vehicle more experience for the next mile.7Building the Worlds Most Experienced DriverA Waymo vehicles onboard map view of the intersection of W.Middlefield Road at Rengstorff Avenue,Mountain View,CA.1.Where Am I?Before our cars drive in any location,our team builds our own detailed three-dimensional maps that highlight information such as road profiles,curbs and sidewalks,lane markers,crosswalks,traffic lights,stop signs,and other road features.Rather than rely on GPS,Waymos vehicles cross-reference their pre-built maps with real-time sensor data to precisely determine their location on the road.How Our Self-Driving Vehicle Sees the World and How it WorksAt the most basic level,human drivers need to answer four questions:“Where am I?”(perceiving the environment around you),“Whats around me?”(processing that information),“What will happen next?”(predicting how others in that environment will behave),and“What should I do?”(making driving decisions based on that information).Self-driving vehicles need to answer those questions,too.In this example,our vehicle has detected vehicles(depicted by green and purple boxes),pedestrians(in yellow),and cyclists(in red)at the intersectionand a construction zone up ahead.2.Whats Around Me?Our sensors and software scan constantly for objects around the vehiclepedestrians,cyclists,vehicles,road work,obstructionsand continuously read traffic controls,from traffic light color and railroad crossing gates to temporary stop signs.Our vehicles can see up to 300 meters away(nearly three football fields)in every direction.Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving8The simulated imagery shown demonstrates how our software assigns predictions to each object surrounding our vehicleother vehicles,cyclists,pedestrians,and more.The green path indicates the trajectory through which our vehicle can proceed ahead.The series of green fences indicate that the self-driving vehicle can proceed,and that the vehicle has identified the vehicles ahead and understands it has to maintain certain headway.3.What Will Happen Next?For every dynamic object on the road,our software predicts future movements based on current speed and trajectory.It understands that a vehicle will move differently than a cyclist or pedestrian.The softwarethen uses that information to predict the many possible paths that other road users may take.Our software also takes into account how changing road conditions(such as a blocked lane up ahead)may impact the behavior of others around it.Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving94.What Should I Do?The software considers all of this information as it finds an appropriate route for the vehicle to take.Our software selects the exact trajectory,speed,lane,andsteering maneuvers needed to progress along this route safely.Because our vehicles are constantly monitoring the environment,and predicting the future behavior of other road users in 360 degrees around our vehicles,theyre able to respond quickly and safely to any changes on the road.As the first company to complete a fully self-driving trip on public roads,Waymo has had to write its own playbook.In the earliest days of our company,we established our System Safety Program,which documented practices that would ensure safety in the testing and development of our technology.T oday,that program is a comprehensive and robust approach we call Safety by Design.Safety by Design means we consider safety from the ground up and incorporate safety at every system level and every development stage,from design to testing and validation.It is a multi-pronged approach that builds upon best practices from a variety of industries,including aerospace,automotive,and defense(including aspects of MIL-STD-882E 10 and ISO 26262).11In line with these practices,each individual component of our self-driving vehicle is tested robustly to ensure that all subsystems perform safely when integrated as a complete self-driving system.Thisapproach also helps us validate that the vehicle works safely as a fully self-driving vehicle on the road,and understand how a change or failure in any part of the systemcomponent,subsystem,or otherwisecauses changes throughout the rest of the self-driving system.This process has led to many of Waymos key safety features,including redundant critical safety systems,which enable the vehicle to come to a safe stop in the event of a technology failure,the use of complementary sensors with overlapping fields-of-view,and our extensive testing program which has helped us make rapid improvements in our technology.Our System Safety Programsafety by design 1Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving10section Areas Addressed by Waymos System Safety ProgramOur System Safety Program addresses five distinct safety areas:behavioral safety,functional safety,crash safety,operational safety,and non-collision safety.Each aspect requires a combination of testing methods that,taken together,allow us to validate the safety of our fully self-driving vehicles.Behavioral Safety:Behavioral safety refers to the driving decisions and behavior of our vehicles on the road.Just as for human drivers,our vehicles are subject to traffic rules and must safely navigate a variety of scenarios,both expected and unexpected.Waymo uses a combination of functional analysis,simulation tools,and on-road driving to fully understand the challenges presented within our operational design domain,and to develop safety requirements and a multi-pronged testing and validation process.Functional Safety:Functional safety seeks to ensure that our vehicles operate safely even when there is a system fault or failure.That means building in backup systems and redundancies to handle the unexpected.For example,all of our self-driving vehicles are equipped with a secondary computer that can take over inthe event of a main computer failure,bringing the vehicle to a safe stop(i.e.a minimal risk condition).Each of our vehicles also has backup steering and braking,along with many layers of redundancies throughout the system.Crash Safety:Crash safety,or crashworthiness,refers to the ability of vehicles to protect passengers inside the vehicles through a variety of measures,ranging from a structural design that shields people inside,to features like seat restraints and airbags that mitigate injury or prevent death.Crash safety in the U.S.is covered by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards(FMVSS),which are issued by the National Highway T raffic Safety Administration(NHTSA).Vehicle manufacturers must certify that their base vehicles meet applicable FMVSS requirements.Operational Safety:This refers to the interaction between our vehicles and passengers.With operational safety,we can ensure that consumers have a safe and comfortable experience in our vehicles.Our approach to building a safe product is informed by our hazard analyses,existing safety standards,extensive testing,andbest practices from a variety of industries.For example,through initiatives like our early rider program(further described in section 4),we have developed and tested user interfaces so that passengers can clearly indicate their destination,direct the vehicle to pull over,and contact Waymo rider support.Non-Collision Safety:We address physical safety for the range of people who might interact with the vehicle.For example,this includes electrical system or sensor hazards that could cause harm to occupants,vehicle technicians,test drivers,first responders,or bystanders.Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving11Safety ProcessesWaymo organizes the processes we use to keep our vehicles safe through our System Safety Program.Safety requirements needed to reduce the risk of potential hazards are captured internally,addressed in design,and then verified and validated to demonstrate that safety risks have been reduced to the levels identified in the analyses.Our approach starts with identifying hazard scenarios and potential mitigations that can be implemented to reduce risk.These mitigations may take various forms such as software or hardware requirements,hardware or software design recommendations,procedural controls,or recommendations for additional analyses.We use various hazard assessment methods such as preliminary hazard analysis,fault tree,and Design Failure Modes and Effects Analyses(DFMEA).This continuous process goes hand-in-hand with ongoing engineering and test activities and safety engineering analyses.The hazard analysis process helps identify requirements for our self-driving system architecture,subsystems,and components.These safety requirements are developed from the use of a series of subsystem and system analysis techniques,various systems engineering processes,and Federal and State laws and regulations.The analysis also supports the development of requirements for our behavioral safety testing,and how our system detects and handles faults.With our system architecture and requirements defined,Waymo then conducts extensive testing on public roads,a closed course,and in simulated driving.We use information gathered from this testing,as well as research into national crash data and naturalistic driving studies 12,to provide additional insights into potential hazards.The combined knowledge derived from these various tools plays a major role in our understanding of our systems readiness.Drawing on this understanding,were able to comprehensively analyze and evaluate the safety of our system before we permit fully self-driving operation on public roads.Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving12The Self-Driving SystemOur fully self-driving system is designed to operate without a human driver,unlike technologies sold in cars today such as adaptive cruise-control or lane-keeping systems which require constant monitoring by the driver.Our system includes the software and hardware that,when integrated into the vehicle,perform all driving functions.In self-driving jargon,Waymos self-driving system is designed to perform the entire dynamic driving task within a geographic area and under certain defined conditions,without the need for a human driver.This type of technology falls under SAE Internationals definition of a Level 4 automated driving system,as our technology also has the ability to bring a vehicle toa safe stop(i.e.a minimal risk condition)in the event of any system failures.Unlike autonomous systems at lower levels(Level,1,Level 2,and Level 3),a Level 4 system also has the ability to bring a vehicle to a safe stop(i.e.achieve a minimal risk condition)in the event of any system failures,without any expectation that a human driver take over.13How Waymos Self-Driving Vehicles WorkThe Case for Full Autonomy:Allowing Passengers to Stay PassengersAdvanced driver-assist technologies were one of the first technologies our teams explored.In 2012 we developed and tested a Level 3 system that would drive autonomously on the freeway in a single lane but would still require a driver to take over at a moments notice.During our internal testing,however,we found that human drivers over-trusted the technology and were not monitoring the roadway carefully enough to be able to safely take control when needed.As driver-assist features become more advanced,drivers are often asked to transition from passenger to driver in a matter of seconds,often in challenging or complex situations with little context of the scene ahead.The more tasks the vehicle is responsible for,the more complicated and vulnerable this moment of transition becomes.Avoiding this“handoff problem”is part of the reason why Waymo is working on fully self-driving vehicles.Our technology takes care of all of the driving,allowing passengers to stay passengers.2Waymo Safety ReportOn The Road to Fully Self-Driving13section LiDAR(Laser)SystemLiDAR(Light Detection and Ranging)works day and night by beaming out millions of laser pulses per secondin 360 degrees and measuring how long it takes to reflect off a surface and return to the vehicle.Waymos system includes three types of LiDAR developed in-house:a short-range LiDAR that gives our vehicle an uninterrupted view directly around it,a high-resolution mid-range LiDAR,and a powerful new generation long-range LiDAR that can see almost three football fields away.Vision(Camera)SystemOur vision system includes cameras designed to see the world in context,as a human would,but with a simultaneous 360-degree field of view,rather than the 120-degree view of human drivers.Because our high-resolution vision system detects color,it can help our system spot traffic lights,construction zones,school buses,and the flashing lights of emergency vehicles.Waymos vision system is comprised of several sets of high-resolution cameras,designed to work well at long range,in daylight and low-light conditions.Radar SystemRadar uses wavelengths to perceive objects and movement.These wavelengths are able to travel around objects like rain drops,making radar effective in rain,fog,and snow,day or night.Waymos radar system has a continuous 360-degree view,so it can track the speed of road users in front,behind and to both sides of the vehicle.Supplemental SensorsWaymo vehicles also have a number of additional sensors,including our audio detection system that can hear police and emergency vehicle sirens up to hundreds of feet away,and GPS to supplement our vehicles extensive understanding of their physical locations in the world.LiDAR SystemRadar SystemVision SystemSupplemental SensorsObject and Event Detection and Response:Our Vehicle SensorsT o meet the complex demands of autonomous driving,Waymo has developed an array of sensors that allow our vehicle to see 360 degrees,both in daytime and at night,and up to nearly three football fields away.This multi-layered sensor suite works together seamlessly to paint a detailed 3D picture of the world,showing dynamic and static objects including pedestrians,cyclists,other vehicles,traffic lights,construction cones,and other road features.WWa ay ymmo o S Sa af fe et ty y R Re ep po or rt tO On n T Th he e R Ro oa ad d t to o F Fu ul ll ly y S Se el lf f-D Dr ri iv vi in ng g14Our Self-Driving SoftwareOur self-driving software is the“brain”of our vehicle.It makes sense of the information coming from our sensors,and uses that information to make the best driving decisions for each situation.Waymo has spent eight years building and refining our software,using machine learning andother advanced engineering techniques.Weve trained our software through years of careful design and testing,billions of miles of simulated driving,and more than 3.5 million miles of on-roaddriving experience.Our system possesses a deep
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