资源描述
International Marketing Exam Review Notes International marketing; Is simply the application of marketing principles to more than one country.国际市场营销:简单来说，就是市场营销原则的应用不再局限于一个国家 Global Marketing; is a firms ability to market to almost all countries on the planet.全球营销:是一个公司有能力在全球建立市场 Trends and Events;趋势和项目 1. The growth of The World Trade Organization and regional trade areas such as the North American Free Trade Area and The European Union.世贸,北美自由贸易区,欧盟都在增长 2. The trend towards the acceptance of the free market system among developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe. 拉丁美洲,亚洲,东欧的发展中国家对自由市场体系的接受的趋势 3. the burgeoning impact of the Internet and Global media on the dissolution of national borders互联网和全球媒体迅速发展的影响打破了国界 4. the mandate to properly manage the resources and the global environment for the generations to come.正确管理资源的命令和未来全球的环境 Pro-Globalists; Pro-globalists argue that the modern world is experiencing rapid convergence in tastes and preferences, and a standardization of worldwide production, distribution, and manufacturing.赞成全球化者:他们认为全球正在经历审美和选择的快速收敛,是全球范围的标准化的生产,分配,制造的过程 Anti-Globalists; They rebel against the implications of its existence and vehemently challenge the view that it is inevitable and naturally occurring. 反对全球化者:他们对抗存在的影响，激烈的挑战不可避免的和必然发生的观点 Self-Reference Criterion (SRC); is an unconscious reference to ones own cultural values, experiences, and knowledge as a basis for decisions.自我参考标准:是无意识的参考文化价值,经验和知识为基础做出的决定 Ethnocentrism; the notion that ones own culture or company knows best how to do things.民族优越感:是一种认为自己的文化或公司是最好的的观念 Stages of International Marketing Involvement国际市场营销参与的阶段 No Direct Foreign Marketing; In this stage the firm does not actively cultivate customers outside national boundaries; however, this companys products may reach foreign markets.不直接国外市场营销:这个阶段的公司并不积极的培养国外消费者,然而公司的产品可以到达国外市场 Infrequent Foreign Marketing; Sales to foreign markets are made as goods are available, with little or no intention of maintaining continuous market representation.不频发的国外市场营销:实现国外市场的销售因为商品是可得到的,有着很少的甚至是没有维持市场表现的意图 Regular Foreign Marketing; At this level, the firm has permanent production capacity devoted to the production of goods to be marketed in foreign markets.经常性的国外市场营销:在这个阶段公司有永久的生产能力投入到国外市场的商品生产中去 International Marketing; Companies at this stage are fully committed and involved in international marketing activities.国际市场营销：这个阶段的公司完全参与到国际市场营销活动中 Global Marketing; At this stage, companies treat the world, including their home market, as one market.全球市场营销:在这个阶段,公司把全球包括国内市场看做一个市场 The Twentieth to the Twenty First Century20世纪到21世纪 The first half of The Twentieth Century was marred by two major global conflicts, and The Great Depression.20世纪的前半叶两次世界大战和经济大萧条损毁 World War 1 1914 to 1918第一次世界大战1914-1918 The Great Depression 1929 to 1939大萧条时期1929-1939 World War 2 1939 to 1945第二次世界大战1939-1945 The Marshall plan; Was a plan aimed at the rebuilding of Europe and Japan after their destruction during the Second World War.马歇尔计划:计划的目的是重建在二战中摧毁的欧洲和日本 Agency of International Development; was an organization created after WW2 where member countries could invest funds to help foster economic development in underdeveloped countries in order to create a stronger world economy.国际开发总署:二战后成立的组织,为了更强大的全球经济,成员国可以在不发达国家投资促进经济发展 GATT (General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade); In 1947 GATT was ratified by 23 member nations. Their goal was to limit trade barriers and increase global trade among nations.关税和贸易总协定:1947年23个国家批准了GATT,他们的目标是降低贸易壁垒和增加全球贸易 During the world wars trade amongst warring nations had all but stopped, and in the period between the wars there was an atmosphere of protectionism. This lead to tariffs as high as 60% on many products to limit trade, and is one of the causes of The Great Depression! After the wars world leaders sought cooperation and trade!战争期间,交战国的贸易停止了,贸易保护主义盛行,许多产品的关税高达60%,这限制了贸易,这也是导致经济大萧条的原因之一,战后世界的领导者寻求合作和贸易 The World Trade Organization (WTO); Was created in 1994 as an institution to deal with, and eliminate trade disputes amongst the 132 member countries.世贸:1994成立的机构旨在处理和消除132个成员国之间的贸易争端 The International Monetary Fund (IMF); Was formed after WW2 to stabilise foreign exchange rates and the establishment of freely convertible currencies to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade. (181 member countries)国际货币基金组织:二战后成立,致力于稳定货币汇率和建立自由兑换货币促进扩张,平衡国际贸易的增长（181个成员国） The World Bank; Is an institution that has as its goal the reduction of poverty and the improvement of living standards by promoting sustainable growth and investment in people.世界银行:这一机构的目标在于减少贫困,提高生活质量,促进可持续增长和投资 International Trade Theories国际贸易理论 Adam Smith and Absolute Advantage亚当斯密和绝对优势 Absolute advantage; The advantage that exists when a country has a monopoly on producing a specific product or is able to produce it more efficiently than all other countries. 绝对优势:一个国家在特定商品上垄断或比其他国家生产效率更高的优势 David Ricardo and Comparative Advantage大卫李嘉图和相对优势 Comparative Advantage; The theory that states that a country should sell to other countries those products it produces most effectively and efficiently, and buy from other countries those products it cannot produce as effectively or efficiently. 相对优势:这个理论表明一个国家应向其他国家销售其能高效生产的商品,购买其不能高效生产的商品 Heckscher Ohlin and Factor Endowments赫克舍奥林和具备的生产要素 Follow along the line of Comparative Advantage, Heckscher and Ohlin suggest that some countries have natural advantages, known as factors.依照相对优势理论,赫克舍奥林提出国家应该有自然优势如各种要素 Thus; A country will have a Comparative Advantage in products that require resources that are abundant in that country.因此,一个国家要在充足的自然资源生产的产品上有相对优势 Country Similarity Theory国家相似理论 Economist, Steffen Linder, in 1960, suggested that trade between countries for manufactured goods depended on the similarities in consumer preferences, production conditions, and economic development stage. Economic and social similarity increases level of trade between countries.经济学家史蒂芬琳达1960年提出国家间商品的交换依靠相似的消费者选择,生产环境,经济发展阶段,经济和社会的相似能提升国家间贸易的阶段 Product Life Cycle Theory产品周期理论 Raymond Vernon, Is very similar to The Product Life Cycle Theory, but includes the factors of global competition and trade. He says that within the PLC there are three stages of international product growth. They are;雷蒙德弗农提出与产品周期理论相似的理论,但包括全球竞争和贸易的因素,他说在产品周期理论内国际产品增长有三个阶段 1. New Product Stage; Entrepreneurs launch a new product in their home market, where they understand the environment.新产品阶段:企业家在国内市场推行新产品,他们了解市场环境 2. Mature Product Stage; Demand for the product expands faster then supply as customers alter their choices and adopt new styling. As demand moves offshore so does production!成熟产品阶段:对产品的需求迅速增长,然后供给满足消费者的不同选择和采用新款式,产品的需求和生产到达国外 3. Standardized Product Stage; Demand for the product stabilizes. The innovative features of the product no longer exist. Production moves to the lowest cost locations as demand drops.标准化产品阶段:产品的需求稳定,产品创新的特点不再存在,随着需求下降,生产转移到低成本地区 Balance of Payments收支平衡 Balance of Payments; The system of accounts that records a nations international financial transactions.收支平衡:记录一个国家的国际金融处理的账目系统 Trade Surplus; A favourable balance of trade; occurs when the value of a countrys exports exceeds that of its imports.贸易顺差:有利的贸易平衡,一国出口的贸易额超过进口 Trade Deficit; An unfavourable balance of trade; occurs when the value of a countrys imports exceeds that of its exports.贸易逆差:不利的贸易平衡,一国进口的贸易额超过出口 Exchange Rate; Refers to the value of a currency in relation to the values of other currencies.汇率:本国货币价值与其他货币价值的关系 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP); The value of a countries currency and the cost of living in that country, compared to the value of another currency in another country and the cost of living in that country.购买力同等:一国货币的价值与生活成本与另一国相比较 Protectionism贸易保护主义 Protectionism; The use of government regulations to limit the import of goods and services.贸易保护主义政府条例的使用限制商品和服务的进口 Trade Barriers; Are barriers put in place by governments to restrict or prevent international trade.贸易壁垒:政府设置壁垒限制或阻止国际贸易 Tariff; A tax imposed on imports.关税强加到进口上的税 Quota; Is a specific unit or dollar limit applied to a particular type of good.限额:对特定商品限制交易量和交易额 Voluntary Export Restrictions; (VER) or Orderly Market Agreements; (OMA); are agreements between importing and exporting countries for a restriction on the volume of exports.自愿出口限制或有序市场协议:是进口和出口国对大量出口限制的协议 Boycott; Is an absolute restriction against the purchase and importation of certain goods from other countries.联合抵制:是对从其它国家进口特定商品的绝对的限制 Embargo; Is a refusal to sell to a specific country.禁止或限制贸易:拒绝和特定国家贸易 Monetary Barrier; Restrictions on money exchange.货币壁垒:对货币兑换的限制 Standard; Standards on product safety and quality and business rules.标准:产品安全和质量的标准和商业准则 Antidumping Penalties; Limits on imports based on predatory pricing, to prevent dumping. 反倾销处罚:对掠夺性定价商品的限制,目的是防止倾销 Definitions and Origins of Culture所谓文化及其起源 Culture; Is the sum of the values, rituals, symbols, beliefs, and thought processes that are learned, and shared by a group of people, and transmitted from generation to generation.文化即一群人共同拥有,认知并世代相传的价值观,宗教,符号,信仰和思维方式的总和。 Elements of Culture文化的诸要素 Rokeach;罗克奇,一人名,以价值观调查Rokeach Values Survey著称于世。 Values; Is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.价值观：是一种持久的信念，此信念是对某一特定行为模式或存在的最终状态的偏好，优于另一相对的行为模式或存在的最终状态。 Beliefs; Is a mental acceptance of and conviction in the truth, actuality, or validity of something.信仰：即对真理、事实或某物的正确性的心理认同。 Attitudes; Is a mental predisposition to view a particular person, object, or idea in either positive or negative terms.态度或称看法，即当面临一特定的人,物体,或想法时，从积极或消极的方面考虑的心理倾向。 Three Types of Beliefs信仰的三种类型 1. Existential beliefs; which are capable of being true or false.存在主义信仰：以真假为标准评价事物。 2. Evaluative beliefs; where in the object or belief is judged to be good or bad.评价信仰：以好和坏评价事物。 3. Prescriptive beliefs; in which some means or end of action is judged to be desirable or undesirable.规范的信仰：以满意不满意来判定某种方法或行为。 Two Categories of Values两种类型的价值观 Terminal values; values concerning desirable end states of existence.终极价值观：关于最理想的最终存在方式的价值观念。 Instrumental values; values concerning desirable modes of conduct.工具价值观：关于最理想的行为模式的价值观念。 Individualism/Collectivism Index个人主义/集体主义指数 The Individualism/collectivism Index refers to the preference for behaviour that promotes ones self-interest.是指有利于自身利益的行为取向。 Power Distance Index权力距离系数 Power Distance Index measures the tolerance of social inequality, that is, power inequality between superiors and subordinates within a social system. 权力距离系数反映人们对社会不平等，即在某一社会制度中上下级间的权力不平等情况的容忍度。 Uncertainty Avoidance Index风险回避指数 The Uncertainty Avoidance Index measures the tolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity among members of a society.不确定性回避系数反应了社会成员对模棱两可或不确定性的容忍程度。 Cultures that score higher on individualism and lower on uncertainty avoidance tend to be more innovative. 研究表明：个人主义指数高、不确定回避指数低的文化往往更喜欢创新。 Cultural Knowledge对文化的了解 Factual Knowledge; Knowledge about a culture that is obvious and has to be learned.事实性知识:必须学习的显而易见的文化知识。 Interpretive Knowledge; An ability to understand and to appreciate fully the nuances of different cultural traits and patterns.解释性知识:完全理解乃至能鉴赏不同文化特质和形态之间的细微差别。 Cultural Sensitivity; Being attuned to the nuances of culture so that a new culture can be viewed objectively, evaluated, and appreciated.关注文化间的细微差别以便客观的看待一种新的文化，对这种文化进行评估和欣赏。 Culture is dynamic in nature; it is a living process. The fact that cultural change is constant seems paradoxical, because another important attribute of culture is that it is conservative and resists change.文化是动态的， 是一个活生生的过程。然而文化变革持续不断这一事实似乎又有些矛盾，因为文化的另一个重要特性就是它的保守性，抵制变革。 Cultural Borrowing; One culture or society learning news ways of dealing with new or old problems by learning from other societies or cultures.一种文化或社会向另一种文化或社会学习解决自身新旧问题的新方法的行为。 Hofstedes Data; Another look!回顾一下；霍夫施泰德数据； More innovative cultures who accept change easier are;更容易接受变革的创新型文化往往具有以下特点： Have higher INDIVIDUALISM! (IDV) 个人主义指数较高 Have lower POWER DISTANCE! (PDI)权力距离指数较低 Have lower UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE! (UAI)风险回避指数较低 Required Adaption必要的适应 There are ten basic criteria that all who wish to deal with individuals, firms, or authorities in foreign countries should be able to meet;作为适应的指导原则，凡与他国人士、企业和政府机构打交道的人都应遵守以下10个基本准则： 1. open tolerance,包容 2. flexibility,灵活 3. humility,谦逊 4. justice/fairness,公平与公正 5. ability to adjust to varying tempos,能适应不同的工作节奏 6. curiosity and interest,好奇心与兴趣 7. knowledge of the country,对他国的了解 8. liking for others,喜欢他人 9. ability to command respect, 能赢得别人尊重10. ability to integrate oneself into the environment. 能入乡随俗. Business customs can be grouped into; 商业习俗可被归结为； Cultural Imperatives; customs that must be recognized and accommodated. 文化的强制性；必须承认和遵守的习俗。 Cultural Electives; customs to which adaption is helpful, but not necessary.文化的选择性；这些习俗，适应了很好，不适应也没关系。 Cultural Exclusives; customs to which an outsider must not participate.文化的排他性；外人断不可介入的习俗和行为方式。 Cultural Imperatives; are the business customs and expectations that must be met and confronted to or avoided if relationships are to be successful.有些商业习俗具有强制性，要么遵守它，要么避开它。要保持双方良好的关系，就必定会遇到这个问题。 Cultural Electives; relate to areas of behaviour or to customs that cultural aliens may wish to conform to or participate in but that are not required. 指某些文化习俗和惯例，来自不同文化的人或许愿意遵守或者参与，但是并非必须这样。 Cultural Exclusives; are those customs or behaviour patterns reserved exclusively for the locals and from which a foreigner is barred.是指当地所特有的一些习俗和行为方式，“外人”不可介入。 High/Low-Context Continuum;高/低语境连续统一体，（老实说，这个概念涉及语言学，解释起来有点复杂，但是秉着负责任的态度，我还是要试着解释一下：在有些文化中，信息是明确表达的，词语本身包含了要表达的大部分信息。而在另一些文化环境下，通过语言传达的信息不多，更多的是依赖于语境表达。主要靠语境表达的就是高语境文化。） No language translates directly into another as the meanings of words differ, and the rules of grammar differ.大概没有哪一种语言能够毫不费力地翻译成另外一种语言。 Verbal; Language, no matter how imprecise, is at least explicit!语言沟通无论怎样不精确，但至少是明确表达的。 Non-verbal; messages communicated through unspoken cues, and are implicit, and often difficult to catch!非语言沟通：信息交流常常通过未说出口的、不易捕捉到的线索或暗示。 M-Time; Monochronic; Stick to schedules, time is very important. (ie, North America)单一时间利用方式；严格按照时间表，时间对于他们非常重要。比如美国，德国，瑞士人。 Most low context cultures operate on M-time.大多数低语境国家采用单一时间利用方式。 P-Time; Polychronic; Emphasizes relationships over schedules and time. (ie. Traditional cultures like Latin America)多种时间利用方式；重视人际关系超过时刻表。比如说因循传统文化的拉丁美洲。 Most high context cultures operate on P-time.大多数高语境国家采用多种时间利用方式。 Sovereign State; is independent and free from all external control; enjoys full legal equality with other states; governs its own territory; selects its own political, economic, and social systems; and has the power to enter into agreements with other nations.主权国家;乃不受外部干预之独立自由国家，享有选择其政治，经济，社会制度，缔结和约，和领土自治之权。 Sovereignty; the ability of a state to independent of all other states. 主权；其独立自治之能。 Nationalism; an intense feeling of national pride and unity.一种强烈的民族团结,和自豪感。 Ethnocentrism; consumers perfer domestic goods.民族优越感，即消费者更青睐国货. Confiscation, Expropriation, and Domestication充公,征用,和国有化 Confiscation; The seizing of company assets without payment.无偿剥夺企业资产 Expropriation;Where the government seizes company assets but pays for those assets.政府会相应的付钱给被征用的公司。 Domestication; Gradually transfer company assets to government control.将公司逐渐的转变为由国家控制 Economic Risks经济风险 Exchange Controls; Limiting the exchange of one currency for another.交换控制：限制货币与货币的交换。 Local-Content Laws; Laws specifying that there must be a certain level of local content in labour or material in order to have access to the market. 产品本地化的法律规定：法律指定本地劳动力和原料要达到一定程度以适应和利用本地市场。 Import Restrictions; Selective restrictions on the amount of goods or services that may be imported, creating the need for local suppliers.进口限制：在进口的商品或服务的数量上选择性限制，为本地供应商创造需求。 Tax Controls; Taxes imposed on foreign revenue generated in a domestic market which is higher than that paid by domestic companies.赋税控制：在国内市场，对国外企业利润的赋税的征收要比国内企业高。 Price Controls; Controls placed on essential goods to protect consumers.价格控制：对一些必要产品的控制以保护消费者 Labour Problems; Labour laws and rules are significantly different in different countries and will impact company operations in different markets.劳动力问题：劳动法和规则在不同国家是显著不同的，这会影响公司在不同市场的运作。 Political and Social Activists政治和社会上的积极分子 PSA are group who have a political agenda and use protesting and lobbying to guide and sway public opinion and the political landscape in a certain direction.政治和社会上的积极分子有着政治议程，使用抗议和游说的手段来引导和影响公众选择和政治前景朝着特定方向发展。 Country Risk; broadly refers to the likelihood that a foreign government may be unable or unwilling to fulfill its obligations toward one or more lenders or business investors.国家风险：广泛涉及很可能一个国外政府不能或不愿意履行一个或更多的贷方或商业投资人的债务。Accurately evaluating the exposure to country risk in emerging market economies and developing countries has become a critical task for the international marketer.准确的评估国家风险在新兴市场和发展中国家对国际市场营销者来说是很重要的任务They carefully watch political and military activities, as well as general economic trends, in determining business and marketing strategies.他们谨慎的关注政治和军事活动和经济的大致趋势来决定商业和市场营销策略。 PRS; developed a method of assessing country political risk called ICRG model.开发一种评估国家风险的叫做ICRG模式的方法 International Country Risk Guide Model; (ICRG); An indicator system that provides detailed and consistant country risk ratings covering a broad range of risk factors. 一种指示器系统能够提供详细的和持续的国家风险等级包括的宽范围的风险因素 Reducing Political Vulnerability如何减少政治弱点 There are measures a company can take that can reduce the degree of vulnerability to political risk such as;有些方法可以减少政治风险弱点程度 1. Joint Ventures; Joining forces with a local company to reduce the foreign risk element. Domestic firms have distribution and understand the market and the culture.合资企业：于当地公司合资减小外国风险因素，国内公司有分配并且理解市场和文化 2. Expanding the Investment Base; Including local investors such as banks who have local political clout in the investment opportunity.扩大投资基础：在投资机会中包括当地的像银行这样有政治影响力的投资者 Shared return, shared risk! 分享回报 分担风险。 3. Licensing; Getting a fee for allowing a company to use your intellectual property or brand. This is very common in franchising as well as the software industry.许可经营：从使用你知识产权和品牌的公司那里得到利益。 4. Planned Domestication; A long range plan to slowly allow local interests to take over an investment once the desired return targets have been met.有计划的本土化：一个长期的缓慢的让当地接管投资的计划，一旦公司预期的回报目标实现 5. Political payoffs; Payoffs and bribes are illegal in many western countries such as Canada. In some countries they are a legitimate method of doing business.政治献金：报酬和贿赂在加拿大这样的许多西方国家是不合法的 在一些国家是合法的商业手段。 6. Economic Contributions and Corporate Philanthropy ; Making investments that help the local economy or population that are outside the realm of the profit seeking nature of an investment can create a positive environment for a company.经济贡献和公司慈善：进行投资帮助投资收益外的当地经济和居民能为公司创造有力的环境 Relations between governments and foreign companies is generally positive if the investment;政府与外企的关系一般是积极的如果投资是： 1. Improves the balance of payments by increasing exports and reducing imports通过增加出口和减少进口来改善支付平衡 2. Uses local resources.使用当地资源 3. transfers capital, technology, or skills.引进资金 工艺 技术 4. create jobs.更多的工作机会 5. makes tax contributions.纳税 There are different types of legal systems across the globe having different bases for their foundations.各国因基础的不同而有不同的法定系统 Laws; are the rules by which society has agreed are necessary for society to function fairly for all its members.法律：是被社会承认的对社会必要对社会成员公平的规则 Legal System; Is the system or set of procedures
展开阅读全文