语言学知识板块及考点总结.doc

语言学知识板块及考点总结定义篇 phonetics(U2 of 陈；C3 of 丁)phonetics deals with description, classification and transcription of speech sounds.(2)consonants are sounds produced by obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.(3)cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowel of existing languages.(4)coarticulation is the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.(5)phonetics transcription: 1. when we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation, it is called narrow transcription. 2. when we use a set of simple symbols in our transcription, trying to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguish one word from another in a given language, it is called broad transcription. (6)RP: short for received pronunciation, the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England, It has been the accent of those with power, money and influence since the early to mid 20th century. phonology(1) phonology is concerned with the exploration of the patterns governing sound combinations.(2) Phones are the smallest perceptible segment of sounds in a stream of speech.(3) phoneme is an abstract collection of phonetics features which can distinguish meaning.(4) minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two sound segments are called a minimal pair. (5) allophones: the different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetics environments are called allophones. 1. complementary distribution: when two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments.2. free variation: if the substitution of one sound does not generate a new word but merely a different sound of the same word, the two sounds can be seen as in free variation. (6) pitch: different frequencies produced by different rates of vibration in sound production.(7) stress: it refers to the degree of force in producing a syllable.(8) intonation：it involves the occurrence of recurring falling-raising patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either. (English is a stress-timed language.)(9) tone: tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rate of variation of the vocal cords.(10) assimilation: the assimilation rule assimilate one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.1. palatalization: a process by which an originally alveolar sound is moved backward to the palatal area.(e.g. did you /di ju:/did3u:/)2. voice assimilation: a sound changes to be like its pronunciation to be like its neighbors in terms of being voiced or voiceless. (e.g. metalmeddle)3. place assimilation: assimilation that affects place of articulation(e.g. green park)4. elision: it refers to the process by which some sounds may simply left out in rapid speech.(e.g. /t/ in that person)5. liaison:连音，the pronunciation of an otherwise absent consonant sound at the end of the first of two consecutive words the second of which begins with a vowel sound and follows without pause （11）different sound pattern:1. alliteration (Cvc): the initial consonants are identical2. assonance (cVc): syllables with the same vowel3. consonance (cvC): syllables ending with the same consonant4. reverse rhyme (CVc): syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant.5. pararhyme (CvC): syllables having the same initial and final consonants grammar(U3，U4 of 陈；C2 of 丁) lexicon (1) morpheme: the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller unit without destroying or dramatically altering its meaning. (2) free morpheme: may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorrphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist of wholly free morphemes, are compound. (3) bound morpheme: cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme to form a word. (4) root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. it is either a free morpheme or bound morpheme. (5) affix: is a collection of the type of morphemes which can be used only when added to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound. (6) stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. (7) inflectional affix：do not change the category of the word but only add a grammatical meaning to the stem (8) derivational affix：change lexical meaning and the word class (9) acronym: is made up from the first letter of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. (10) initialism: (11) neologism: is a newly coined term, word or phrase, that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. (12) allomorph: is a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound without changing meaning. (e.g. in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop)l as /d/ or /d/ when the stem ends with the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/l as /t/ when the stem ends with voiceless phonemesl as /d/ elsewhere (13) collocation: defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. (e.g. strong tea; powerful computer, but not the other way around) (14) idiom: is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made.syntaxthe structure of English(1) sentence pattern(2) hierarchical structure-Immediate Constituent Analysis: bring out syntactic ambiguity(3) surface structure(only one in a single sentence): the visible sentence sequence(4) deep structure(impossibly more than oneambiguous utterance): what we get from IC Analysis(5) labeled tree diagram: 加标记的树形图(6) sentence are believed to be generate by two basic types of rules: phrase structure(Din p34-49) & transformational rules(7) phrase structure rules: (e.g. SNP VP)(8) lexical rules: rules indicating the words to be used for constituents(9) particle movement11年语法考：the direct object if the verb is delayed an adjunct or indirect object, sometime obligatory(when pronoun act as the object e.g. stand him up stand up him *)(10) simple sentence: a sentence containing only one subject-predicate structure(11) coordinate sentence: simple sentence connected by conjunctions, the two sentence have equal status, parataxis(Din P56)(12) complex sentence: when one or more clause are embedded in to a main clause to communicate purpose, reasons ,etc(13) endocentric construction: phrase can be replace by one of its immediate constituents(lonely policeman by policeman) or by a member of the major word-class as one of its immediate constituent( the man by John )(14) subordinate endocentric construction: only one of the immediate constituents can stand for the whole(15) exocentric construction: phrase cannot be replaced syntactically by any of its immediate constituents(16) generative grammar: attempts to produce a particular type of grammar having explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences_Grammar of English (1) X-words: auxiliaries, modal 11年考-seems not confident about your opinion, cannot be used in academic writing.(2) non-finite verbal group: =非谓语结构，to , V-ing, PP (past participle)(3) particle and phrasal verbs:a. inseparable phrasal verb=verb+ preposition=transitive verbb. seperable phrasal verb=verb+adverbial(particle)c. verb+adverbial+preposition=tansitive verb=inseperable phrasal verb(4) sentence pattern/ relation between clausea. parataxis=compound sentence(but, or, yet, and连接):the relation between clauses are coordinate.b. hypotaxis：1)adverbial as hypotactic clause 2)indirect quotation as(“so” substitution: only for repot, not for fact/ if sth following the verb is an objective complement, it can be replace by a nominal group or a deixis)3)non-defining relative clause vs. defining relative clause: to say some characteristics of the item, as an complement. to distinguish the object from similar ones,rankshiftc. rankshift: with the help of an includer,(defining attributive clause, subjective clause objective clause )(5) half-clause: to avoid overuse of conjunctions; 1) prep 2) subject 3) with/without being(6) modifying relations between clauses semantics(the study of the meaning aspect of language)(1) words viewing: universal semantic properties or features P104(2) metalanguage: the language used in signifying the language itself, for example the feature symbol used in componential analysis. HUAMAN,EQUINE,OVINE,BOVINE,PORCINE,CANINE,LEPRINE,CERVINE,FELINE(3) semantic relations: a. synonymous-synonym (no pair of words are absolutely interchangeable or synonymous because no two words contain exactly the same number or type of semantic properties.) dialectical, evaluational(depending on situation),registral(depending on emotional), collocationally-restictedb. antonymous-antonym(gradable, complementary, converse/relational)c. hyponymy-hyponym(superordinate/umbrella word) vs. subordinate11niand. polysemous: the same form having at least two meaning, which are intrinsically or etymologically related.e. homonymy: homography( the same spelling with different pronunciation and distinct meaning) homophony(the same pronunciation with different spelling and distinct meaning)f. meronymy11nian: part-whole relation(4) sense: words are assigned with some meaning systematically, each being more or less unique in the lexical or grammatical system of language./abstract conceptual(5) reference: the entities a word donates outside the language system./concrete entities(6) semantic field: those belong to the same category fall into the same semantic field.(7) marked/unmarked: In each pair of antonyms that is more commonly used is unmarked-neutral meaning; marked is used when special circumstance calls for it.(8) idiom: opaque(the meaning of the phrase cannot be deduced by combining the meaning of the individual words that make it up)/transparent; not subject to change or modification (9) prototype: the item as the best exemplar defining a category, in which all members share the same attribute.(10) prototype theory: a concept is not seen as a set of critical features, but rather in terms of a most typical instance. The advantage of this is that it allows for categories with fuzzy boundaries, rather than binary cuttings(constitutional analysis).(11) semantic extension(rhetorical device):a. metaphor: the description of one thing in terms of another(abstractconcrete and familiar)b. conceptual metaphor: often contains a systematic conceptual metaphorc. orientational metaphor: has to do with how something is physically located in spaced. ontological metaphor: to treat experience and phenomena as discreet entities.e. metonymy: a kind of substitution in which one thing is used to stand for anotherf. iconicity: the way the physical form of a language corresponds to the real experience being referred to-(e.g. onomatopoeia)g. synecdoche: a part used for the whole, etc.h. radiation: the new meaning is independent of all the rest, and may be traced back to the central significationi. concatenation: a word moves gradually from its original sense as a result of successive semantic changes.(12)denotation, connotation, paradigmatic, syntagmatic(omitted) pragmatics(1) semantic compositionality: the meaning of complex expression is determined by their constituents.(2) recursive syntax: words phrases, and even sentence can be combined in accordance with all sorts of rulesboth the two alone cannot guarantee the appropriate use of language (3) linguistic end in pragmatics: how linguistic forms are used to perform social actions(4) social end: how social-cultural factors bear on the use of language(5) co-text: the preceding and the following linguistic items in a given utterance(6) situational context: concerning where and when the communication takes place and also the number and identity of the participants involved.(7) personal deixiscentral personal: current speaker(8) time dexis-central time: the time at which the speaker produces the utterance(9) place deixiscentral place: the location at the utterance time(10) discourse dexis- discourse central: the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance(11) social dexis-social center: the speakers social status and rank, to which the status or rank of the addressee is relative(12) constative: description of facts or states of affairs(13) performative: the saying itself accomplish a certain action(e.g. I promise) a. the use of first person subjectb. simple present tense c. indicative mood, active voice and a performative verb(14) speech act: the basic or minimal unit of linguistic communication, can be performing three component act at the same time:a. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying sthb. illocutionary act: the intended act behind saying sth; focus of pragmatic studyc. perlocutionary act: the intended effect of an illocutionary act(e.g. Jane said to john, “I am hungry. John leave and come back with some food for Jane. locutionary act: Janes utteranceillocutionary act: an implicit request for John to bring some food for herperlocutionary act: John get some food for Jane)言语分析例题(15) illocutionary speech act are categorized into five types;a. representative: stating, asserting, explaining, predicting, and classifyingb. directive: ordering, commanding, requesting, instructing, and pleadingc. commisive: promising, vowing, pledging, offering, and bettingd. expressive: thanking, apologizing, congratulating, and condolinge. declaration; appointing, naming, christening, vetoing, dismissing, and declaring(16) indirect speech act: people always perform one act via performing another linguistically or non-linguistically.(17) A theory of the illocutionary act(from 胡)a. A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.1. Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.2. Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in Im thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speakers physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionary force.b. A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.1. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.2. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.3. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.(18) relations between sentences:a. entailment: semantic inclusionb. presupposition: information or beliefs shared by the interlocutors. c. inconsistency: either X or Y is true.d. synonymy: when X is true, Y must be true.e. implicture: (19) presupposition trigger: the linguistic item making the presupposition and its inference possiblea. factive verb: those whose objects or objective clauses reflect what has really happenedb. implicative verb: e.g. manage, forget, happen, avoidc. change of state verbs: stop, finish, begin, startd. verbs of judge: conveying the agents evaluation of what is concerned(19)defeasible presupposition: they liable to evaporated in certain context a. immediate linguistic context b. less immediate discourse context, c. in circumstance where there are contrary assumptions(20)felicity conditions: the conditions a speech act has to satisfy in order to count as a felicity one. a. propositional content condition: the utterance is about a future act, and to the benefit of the hearer. b. preparatory condition: the promise has not taken place yet. c. sincerity condition: the speaker means what he said. d. essential condition: the speaker can do what is promised.(21) sociolinguistics: a. community context: geographical variation; temporal variation; socio-economic variation; individual variation.b. context of situation:1. field(ideational): the topic being discussed2. tenor(interpersonal): relating to “who” or the interpersonal relationship involved in a discourse3. mode(textual): the type of medium that the discourse id being communicated throughc. discourse rules: varying from culture to culture1.discouse meaning vs. sentence meaningthe meaning arises from contextthe meaning within syntax and vocabulary of the sentence2. no one-t-one relationship between grammatical sentence types and functions in discourse3.conversational rules(turning-taking: no gap, no overlap; each turn of speech should have a structure; speak priority rule* very importantafter one person finished, who is the next person to speak )4. leaning how to avoid a topic you dont want to talk about or feel uncomfortable discussing(not fulfill the Cooperating Principles: 1. by violation; 2. by opting out; 3. by fulfill one at the expense of another owing to a conflict maxim)5. phatic communion: talk that has very little content and that is performed for the sake of politeness and establishing the channel for communication a. exchange are strictly limited by conversational rules b. devoid of sentence meaning(field); only manifest discourse meaning(tenor) c. cultural specific, different culture may assign different weigh to the maxim when conflict between maxims arise in some circumstance.(22) cooperation principles: quality: requires the speaker to be truthful quantity: requires the speaker to be as informative as required relevance: make sure what you say is relevant to the conversation at hand(literal level vs. interactional level)manner: to be clear and lucid, avoid obscurity of expression; avoid ambiguity(23) conversational implicature: sth. that is implied or left implicit in conversation or beyond properties of implicature: a. calculability: it can be calculated or inferred according to Cooperative Principles b. indeterminacy: the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open