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Chapter 1 Ship Design第一章船舶设计Lesson 1 Introduction第一课 引言1.1 Definition1.1定义The term basic design refers to determination of major ship characteristics affecting cost and performance. Thus basic design includes the selection of ship dimensions, hull form, power (amount and type), preliminary arrangement of hull and machinery, and major structure. Proper selections assure the attainment of the mission requirements such as good seakeeping, performance, maneuverability, the desired speed, endurance, cargo capacity, and deadweight. Furthermore, it includes checks and modifications for achievement of required cargo handling capability, quarters, hotel services, subdivision and stability standards, freeboard and tonnage measurement; all while considering the ship as part of a profitable transportation, industrial, or service system. 术语“基本设计”是指对影响造价和性能的船舶主要参数的确定。因此，基本设计包括船舶主尺度、船体线型、动力（数量和种类）的选取，以及船体、机械设备和主要结构的布置。恰当的选取可保证达到设计任务书的要求，例如良好的耐波性能，操纵性，预期的速度，续航力，舱容和载重量。进一步讲，基本设计还包括校核和修改，以满足货物装卸能力，居位舱，客房设施，分舱和稳性标准，干舷和吨位测量，所有这些都是将船舶当成运输、工业化或服务系统的一部分。Basic design encompasses both concept design and preliminary design. It results in the determination of major ship characteristics, permitting the preparation of initial cost estimates. In the overall design process, basic design is followed by contract design and detail design. Contract design, as its name implies, develops plans and specifications suitable for shipyard bidding and contract award. Well prepared contract plans and specifications will be clear and in sufficient detail to avoid costly contingency items and protect bidders from obscure or inadequate description of requirements. Detail design is the shipyards responsibility for further developing the contract plans as required to prepare shop drawings used for the actual construction of the vessel.基本设计包含概念设计和初步设计，可以确定船舶主要技术参数，为造价初步估计做准备。再整个设计过程中，基本设计之后紧接着就是合同设计和详细设计。合同设计，顾名思义，需要做出图纸和详细说明书，以便船厂去投标和签约。一套良好的合同图纸和详细说明书应当是非常清晰和详细的，以避免高成本的偶然性项目，并使投标者不出现模糊不请的或不充分的描述。详细设计师船厂进一步完善合同设计的重要任务，以准备施工图用于船舶实际建造。An understanding of the entire design sequence is essential to anyone seeking to develop a basic design. The four steps involved are illustrated in the Design Spiral, Evans (1959) as an iterative process working from mission requirements to a detail design. These steps are amplified further below:了解整个设计顺序对任何做基本设计的人都是必要的。设计的4个阶段用设计螺线图表示，如图1所示，是从任务书要求到详细设计的循环工作过程，这4个阶段在下面作详细叙述a. Concept Design. The very first effort, concept design, translates the mission requirements into naval architectural and engineering characteristics. Essentially, it embodies technical feasibility studies to determine such fundamental elements of the proposed ship as length, beam, depth, draft, fullness, power, or alternative sets of characteristics, all of which meet the required speed, range, cargo cubic, and deadweight. It includes preliminary light-ship weight estimates usually derived from curves, formulas, or experience. Alternative designs are generally analyzed in parametric studies during this phase to determine the most economical design solution or whatever other controlling parameters are considered determinant. The selected concept design then is used as a talking paper for obtaining approximate construction costs, which often determine whether or not to initiate the next level of development, the preliminary design.a 概念设计 概念设计作为整个设计的第一阶段，是将任务书要求转换为船舶建造工程参数。它基本上包括技术可行性研究，确定船舶的基本参数如船长，船宽，船深，吃水，丰满度，动力，或可供选择的参数方案，所以这些应满足所要求的航速，航程，货舱舱容和载重量。这包括基于曲线、公式经验而进行的空船重量初步估算。在这一阶段，通常进过参数分析而进行多方案设计以寻求最经济的设计方案，或者任何其它控制也纳入考虑之中以确定最优方案。确定下来的概念设计就做为讨论文件以获得近似的建造成本，不论是否启动下一阶段的设计初步设计。b. Preliminary Design. A ships preliminary design further refines the major ship characteristics affecting cost and performance. Certain controlling factors such as length, beam, horsepower, and deadweight would not be expected to change upon completion of this phase. Its completion provides a precise definition of a vessel that will meet the mission requirements; this provides the basis for development of contract plans and specifications.b 初步设计 船舶的初步设计将进一步优化那些影响造价和性能的传播主要参数。一些控制 参数如船长，船宽，功率和载重量，在该阶段完成之后不宜再变更。初步设计完成后将为船舶提供一个准确的描述，能够满足任务书要求，并为合同设计图纸和说明书提供基础支撑。c. Contract Design. The contract design stage yields a set of plans and specifications which form an integral part of the shipbuilding contract document. It encompasses one or more loops around the design spiral, thereby further refining the preliminary design. This stage delineates more precisely such features as hull form based on a faired set of lines, powering based on model testing, seakeeping and maneuvering characteristics, the effect of number of propellers on hull form, structural details, use of different types of steel, spacing and type of frames. Paramount, among the contract design features, is a weight and center of gravity estimate taking into account the location and weight of each major item in the ship. The final general arrangement is also developed during this stage. This fixes the overall volumes and areas of cargo, machinery, stores, fuel oil, fresh water, living and utility spaces and their interrelationship, as well as their relationship to other features such as cargo handling equipment, and machinery components.The accompanying specifications delineate quality standards of hull and outfit and the anticipated performance for each item of machinery and equipment. They describe the tests and trials that shall be performed successfully in order that the vessel will be considered acceptable.C 合同设计 合同设计阶段提供了一系列图纸和说明书，形成了一套船舶建造合同文件。它包括围绕设计螺旋的一个或多个环节，因为对初步设计作进一步优化。这一阶段更加准确地描绘船舶特征，如基于一套光滑线组成的船体线型，基于模型试验的主机功率匹配，船舶耐波性与操纵性，螺旋桨数量对型线的影响，结构细节，不同类型钢材的使用，肋骨间距和形式等。再合同涉及元素中最重要的是考虑了船舶各个主要分段设备的重量及其位置之后的船舶重量与重心的估算。最终的总布置图也是在这一阶段确定下来，这就将总体积、货物区域、机器设备、储物设备、燃油、淡水、居住与公用舱室以及几何相互关系固定下来。还包括与其它因素例如货物装卸装备、机器设备等的关系也都确定下来。补充说明书描述了船体和舾装的质量标准，以及各个机器、设备的预期性能。这些说明书还叙述了模型试验和实验情况，一表明船舶设计师成功的，船舶是可接受的。 表1.1列出了一艘大型船舶在合同设计中的典型图纸清单。小型船、不复杂的船客不要求具备表中所列的每一图纸，但该表确实显示了合同涉及中考虑的细致程度。d. Detail design. The final stages of ship design is the development of detailed working plans. These plans are the installation and construction instructions to the ship fitters, welders, outfitters, metal workers, machinery vendors, pipefitters, etc. As such, they are not considered to be a part of the basic design process. One unique element to consider in this stage of design is that up to this point, each phase of the design is passed from one engineering group to another. At this stage the interchange is from engineer to artisan, that is, the engineers product at this point is no longer to be interpreted, adjusted, or corrected by any other engineer. This engineering product must unequivocally define the desired end result and be producible and operable.In summary, this chapter considers basic design as that portion of the overall ship design process which commences with concept design and carries preliminary design to the point where there is reasonable assurance that the major features have been determined with sufficient dependability to allow the orderly development of contract plans and specifications. This development will form a basis to obtain shipyard prices within a predetermined price range that will result in an efficient ship with the requisite performance characteristics.d 详细设计 船舶设计的最后阶段是绘制详细的施工图。这些图纸是供船舶装配工、焊工、舾装工人、金属制造工、主机供货方、管件工使用的安装与建造说明。这些图纸不属于基本设计过程的一部分。这一设计阶段的唯一共同之处是设计的每一阶段均从一个设计组传递到另一个设计组。在此阶段，交换仅限于设计工作于技术工人之间，也就是说，一个设计工程师的设计不再由任何其他工程师进行评判、调整或修改。这个设计必须明确表达希望的最终结果，并且是可制造的和可操作的。 概言之，本章将基本设计看作是整个船舶设计过程的一部分。从概念设计和初步设计到合同设计图纸与说明书，有效地保证船舶主要特征参数能足够可靠地确定下来。这个设计过程构成了使船厂建造价格在预先确定的价格范围之内的基础。该价格也保证了充分有效地船舶性能。表1.1合同涉及阶段典型图纸侧视图，总布置图纵剖面图，总布置图所有甲板与船舱的总布置图船员住舱布置图型线图舯横剖面图钢材尺寸图机舱布置图俯视图机舱布置图侧视图机舱布置图横剖面图主轴系布置图动力与照明系统布线图甲板与侧面防火图通风与空调设计图所有管系的图表设计热平衡与蒸汽流动图在正常工作情况下的常规动力电路负载分析图舱容图船型曲线图可浸长度曲线图初始纵倾与初稳性手册破舱稳性计算1.2 General Aspects1.2 一般介绍 The late 1960s and 1970s saw a number of major new developments which in one way or another had an impact on the general basic design problem. Among the most significant was the computer. While the computer affects how basic design is performed, other changes have impacted on what constitutes the basic design problem. For example, one revolutionary development was the change form breakbulk to containerized cargos in the liner trades. Other developments in other ship types created similar new considerations. For tankers, size mushroomed; the increasing demand for petroleum and other raw materials by the industrialized nations of the world has necessitated ever larger tankers and bulk carriers to meet the enormous demand at acceptable costs.Man is looking increasingly to the sea for all major resources; offshore drilling for oil and gas has burgeoned from a small industry located mainly in the shallow areas of the Gulf of Mexico to a worldwide colossus moving into deeper water and more severe sea conditions. These developments have caused a revolution in the design of offshore supply boats, high powered towing vessels, pipe laying barges/ships, and countless other specialized craft. Future developments cannot be foretold, but it seems certain that other minerals will be sought from the sea necessitating entire new fleets of vessels designed for tasks not yet known.Thus, the difficulty of basic ship design will vary with the degree of departure from past practice. Some ship operating companies are closely tied to successful previous designs, and they will permit little variation from these baselines in the development of replacement vessel designs. If the prospective mission appears to parallel, existing operations, this may be a sound approach. Consequently, in such situations, basic design may be limited to examination of minor modifications to dimensions, powering, and arrangements.At the other extreme, totally new seagoing missions, such as the ocean transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG), when first introduced, caused the designer to begin with a blank piece of paper and proceed through rational design with a blank piece of paper and proceed through rational design engineering with crude assumptions subject to frequent and painstaking revision and development. 在60年代后期和70年代，一些重要的新技术给普遍的基本设计问题在某种程度上带来一定的影响。其中最重要的是计算机。再计算机影响着基本设计的时候，其它一些变革已经在影响着基本设计的构成。例如，再班轮营运中一个革命性的进展是从散杂货向集装箱化货运运输方向发展。再其它类型船舶的另一些进展也产生了类似的新的问题需纳入考虑。以油船为例，尺寸迅速增大。世界上工业国家对石油和其它原料的需求的增长需要大型油船和散货船以可接受的成本来满足巨大的需求。人类正在不断地向海洋探求各种重要资源，近海钻井以获取石油和天然气，从墨西哥湾浅水域的小规模工业迅速发展成巨人，进入到深水域和更加恶劣海况的水域中。这些发展对近岸钻井设备/船舶/模块的设计产生了变革，也对这样一个具有挑战性事业所必需的整个支撑船队产生变革。这包括交通艇、平台供应船，大马力拖船，铺管船/驳船，以及数不清的其它特殊的船艇。进一步的发展不可预知，但可以肯定的是，从海中寻找其它生成需要设计出完成此任务的全新船队。因而，船舶基本设计的难度将依据对既往实践的背离程而变化。一些航运公司倾向于以前的成功设计，几乎不允许对以往设计进行改进。如果预期的运输任务与现有的业务类似，那么这种（固执）（保守）是一个不错的办法。因此在这些情形下，基本设计大体上上限于对主尺度、动力系统和布置微小修改。再另一个极端，全新的海上业务，例如液化天然气海上运输，最开始的时候，设计者对此是一片空白（一张白纸），通过不断地修正和完善，最终实现合理的工程设计。Lesson 2 Ships Categorized第二课 船舶分类2.1 Introduction2.1前言The forms a ship can take are innumerable. A vessel might appear to be a sleek seagoing hotel carrying passengers along to some exotic destination; a floating fortress bristling with missile launchers; or an elongated box transporting tanks of crude oil and topped with complex pipe connections. None of these descriptions of external appearance, however, does justice to the ship system as a whole and integrated unit-self-sufficient, seaworthy, and adequately stable in its function as a secure habitat for crew and cargo. This is the concept that the naval architect keeps in mind when designing the ship and that provides the basis for subsequent discussions, not only in this chapter but throughout the entire book.In order to discuss naval architecture, it is helpful to place ships in certain categories. For purpose of this text, ships are classified according to their means of physical support and their designed purposes. 船舶的形状是多种多样的，一艘船可能是一个豪华的海上酒店，载着旅客游世界；也可能是一个浮动的堡垒，扬起导弹发射架；也可能 是一个长箱，运输原油，甲板上布满了复杂的管线。这些外部特征的介绍绝不能准确地描述完整的集成的船舶系统自给自足的，适航的和有足够稳性的，能为船员和货物提供一个安全的处所。这一概念是造船师再设计船舶时必须牢记再心中的，也是今后讨论的基础，不仅仅是在本案中，而是贯穿整本书。为了探讨造船工程，将船舶分类是有益处的，本课的目的是将船舶按照其物理支撑方式和设计用途二分类2.2 Ships Typed According to Means of Physical SupportThe mode of physical support by which vessels can be categorized assumes that the vessel is operating under designed conditions. Ships are designed to operate above, on, or below the surface of the sea, so the air-sea interface will be used as the reference datum. Because the nature of the physical environment is quite different for the three regions just mentioned, the physical characteristics of ships designed to operate in those regions can be diverse.Aerostatic SupportThere are two categories of vessels that are supported above the surface of the sea on a self-induced cushion of air. These relatively lightweight vehicles are capable of high speeds, since air resistance is considerably less than water resistance, and the absence of contact with small waves combined with flexible seals reduces the effects of wave impact at high speed. Such vessels depend on lift fans to create a cushion of low-pressure air in an underbody chamber. This cushion of air must be sufficient to support the weight of the vehicle above the water surface.The first type of vessel has flexible “skirts” that entirely surround the air cushion and enable the ship to rise completely above the sea surface. This is called an air cushion vehicle (ACV), and in a limited sense it is amphibious.The other type of air-cushion craft has rigid side walls or thin hulls that extend below the surface of the water to reduce the amount of air flow required to maintain the cushion pressure. This type is called a captured-air-bubble vehicle (CAB). It requires less lift-fan power than an ACV, is more directionally stable, and can be propelled by water jets or supercavitating propellers. It is not amphibious, however, and has not yet achieved the popularity of the ACVs, which include passenger ferries, cross-channel automobile ferries, polar-exploration craft, landing craft, and riverine warface vessels.Hydrodynamic SupportThere are also two types of vessels that depend on dynamic support generated by relatively rapid forward motion of specially designed hydrodynamic shapes either on or beneath the surface of the water. A principle of physics states that any moving object that can produce an unsymmetrical flow pattern generates a lift force perpendicular to the direction of motion. Just as an airplane with (airfoil) produces lift when moving through the air, a hydrofoil, located beneath the surface and attached by means of a surface piercing strut, can dynamically support a vessels hull above the water.Planning hulls are hull forms characterized by relatively flat bottoms and shallow V-sections (especially forward of amidships) that produce partial to nearly full dynamic support for light displacement vessels and small craft at higher speeds. Planning craft are generally restricted in size and displacement because of the required power-to-weight ratio and the structural stresses associated with traveling at high speed in waves. Most planning craft are also restricted to operations in reasonably clam water, although some “deep V” hull forms are capable of operation in rough water.Hydrostatic SupportFinally, there is the oldest and most reliable type of support, hydrostatic support. All ships, boats, and primitive watercraft up to the twentieth century have depended upon the easily attained buoyant force of water for their operation.This hydrostatic support, commonly recognized as flotation, can be explained by a fundamental physical law that the ancient philosopher-mathematician Archimedes defined in the second century B.C. Archimedes Principle states that a body immersed in a liquid is buoyed up (or acted upon) by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. This principle applies to all vessels that float (or submerge) in water-salt or fresh. And from this statement the name of the ships in the category are derived; they are generally called displacement hulls.Although this ship type is very familiar, its subcategories warrant special discussion. For example, in some vessels reasonably high speed must be combined with the ability to carry light cargo or to move more comfortably in rough water than a planning hull. High-speed planning-hull characteristics can be modified to produce a semidisplacement hull or semiplaning hull. These compromise craft, of course not as fast as full-planing hulls but faster than conventional displacement hull, must have more power and less weight than the latter. Such types are obviously the result of “tradeoffs.”The example cited above lies between clear-cut physically defined categories-it is not a good example of a variation of a true displacement-type ship. The latter must be recognized primarily as a displacement vessel, and its variations depend primarily on the distribution of buoyant volume-the extent of the depth and breadth of the hull below the water.The most ubiquitous type of displacement ship can be generally classified as the common carrier, a seagoing vessel. It may be employed for passenger service, light cargo-carrying, fishing by trawling or for hundreds of other tasks that do not require exceptional capacity, speed, submergence, or other special performance. It is the most common and easily recognizable type of ship, with moderate displacement, moderate speeds, moderate to large lengths, and moderate capacities. It usually embodies the maximum in cruising range and seaworthiness. It is the “ship for all seasons.” It is the standard to which all other ship classifications in the displacement category may be referred.The closest relative to this standard vessel, which plays a crucial role not only in world commerce but in the survival of the industrial world as well, is the bulk, oil carrier, the tanker, or supertanker. These terminologies are common but unspecific, and in this discussion they are inadequate, for what was called a supertanker several years ago is today not a supertanker. The industry itself has created a far more explicit nomenclature. Based upon the index of 1000000 tons oil cargo capacity, the size categories are LCC (large crude carrier), VLCC (very large crude carrier), and ULCC (ultra large crude carrier). Any tanker greater than 100000 tons but less than 200000 is a LCC, those between 200000 and 400000 are VLCCs, and those over 400000 are ULCCs. The current necessity for these designations becomes clear when we realize that before 1956 there were no tankers larger than 50000 tons, and not until the early sixties were any ships built larger than 100000 tons. In 1968 the first ship over 300000 tons was built. With their bulk and enormous capacity (four football fields can be placed end to end on one of their decks), these ships are designed and built to be profit-makers, enormously long, wide, and deep, carrying thousands of tons of crude oil per voyage at the least cost. Few of these elephantine tankers have more than one propeller shaft of rudder. Their navigation bridges are nearly one quarter of a mile from their bows. Their top service speed is so low that a voyage from an Arabian oil port to a European destination normally takes two months.Such vessels belong to a category of displacement ship that has a great range of buoyant support. They have a very large and disproportionate hull volume below the surface when fully loaded. Indeed, the cargo weight far exceeds the weight of the ship itself. The draft or depth of water required for a fully loaded VLCC runs to 50 or 60 feet and the ULCC may be 80 feet. Such ships belong in the exclusive category of displacement vessels called deep displacement ships.There exists another type of displacement hull with extreme draft. However, it is similarity
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