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Focal Point,Focal Points,Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics,A. system: Consist of a set of rules which underlie peoples actual speech or writing B. arbitrary: no intrinsic固有的，本质的，内在的 connection between the word and the thing it refers to C. vocal: sound or oral form is primary to written form D. Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. Greek alphabet , Roman alphabet ( Latin alphabet) , Strokes , E. human communication: only for human beings, unique user, human-specific,language definition: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication,Whether animals or some wise ones have their own language system? Answer: not fixed,Design features:使得语言如此复杂多变，不受制于相邻上下文语境的约束还能够不断产生新的意义。区别人类语言性质的种种特征即本质特征,Arbitrariness 任意性,Duality二重性,Productivity (Creativity)创造性,Displacement移位性,Discussed by Saussure Arbitrariness : there is no logical/natural connection between form (sounds) and meanings (concept).,Different language have different words for the same object .,Language is hierarchical,Discrete units-discrete meanings Syllables (meaningless sounds) Morphemes meaningful segments of words Words Sentences/utterances Texts/discourse 二重性使人类语言具有巨大的能创性,Productivity (Creativity),due to duality and recursiveness递归性 sounds-words-phrases-sentences its potential to create endless sentences Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 创造新词产生无限长的句子,Produce some expressions that never existed before.,Understand some expressions you never heard.,Displacement,Language can be used to refer to things that are present or not present (time and space.) Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations 归纳and abstractions抽象. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty.,Functions of language,informative function信息功能,interpersonal function人际功能,performative function施为功能,emotive function情感功能,phatic function寒暄功能,recreational function娱乐功能,metalingual function元语言功能,信息功能是语言的主要功能 人际功能是语言最重要的社会用途，如亲爱的教授，你的顺从的仆人等 施为功能主要用于改变人们所出的社会地位，如结婚仪式、对囚徒的宣判、婴儿的洗礼、对敌人的诅咒、碎碎平安等 情感功能是语言最强大的功能之一，可左右听众的情绪，如表达感叹、赞美等 寒暄功能用来维护和别人的良好关系，不涉及任何实质性的东西 娱乐功能如婴儿的牙牙学语、赞美诗者的吟唱、对歌等 元语言功能使得语言具有无限的反身性，如书可以来谈论一本书，也可来谈论书这个语言符号。,Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic or scientific study of language.,1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive （描写式&规定式）,Do/Dont say X. prescriptive command People do/dont say X. descriptive statement Descriptive : describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive : lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar),Some important distinctions in linguistics,2. Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时和历时,diachronic,synchronic,the study of a language at a fixed instance (usu. the present) as its point of observation,the study of a language through the course of its history,the study of the features of English used in Shakespeares time ? the study of the changes English ?,3. Speech and writing,The two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as primary. 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.,4. Langue vs. parole 语言和言语 Saussure social view,Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, for example: grammar, syntax, or vocabulary. Parole: the realization of langue in actual use, for example: which is spoken or written by any human-being.,Competence: the ideal users underlying knowledge about the system of rules, the knowledge you (subconsciously) possess about how to speak a language. Performance: the actual use / realization of this knowledge in concrete situations, your real world linguistic output .,5. Competence vs. performance 语言能力和语言应用 Chomsky psychological view,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds phonetics and phonology,Introduction,Speech sounds,study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,study of sound patterns and sound systems,Phonetics (语音）:study speech sounds study the organs How speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received; the description and classification of speech sounds. Phonology（音系）: study the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning? phoneme: the smallest linguistic unit that can signal a difference in meaning,Articulatory phonetics,Auditory phonetics,Acoustic phonetics,Three branches of phonetics语音学, Articulatory phonetics- speakers “how speakers produce speech sounds”this chapter will talk about Auditory phonetics- hearers “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic phonetics-physical properties of speech sounds .,发音语音学,听觉语音学,声学语音学,区分元音与辅音,元辅音的区别在于气流所遇到的阻碍不同。 辅音通过关闭或明显窄化声道迫使其流通过时产生声音摩擦而产生的。 而元音的产生则不受这种责难，因而气流以相对不受阻碍的方式通过口和鼻。,Manner of articulation of consonants,Place of articulation of consonants,Voicing 带声性/声带振动性,voiceless voiced voiceless voiced,A chart of English consonants,How to describe a consonant?,When describe a consonant,there are three standards:voiceless or voicing,the place of articulation, the manner of articulation.,The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:,How to describe a vowel?,When describe a vowel,there are four standards:height(high,mid, low),position(front,central,back), length or tenseness (长音紧，短音松),lip-rounding.,Co-articulation 协同发音,Defination:a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous同时或重叠 or overlapping articulations are involved because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s). “map” where is influenced by m, making it a bit nasalized.it is perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音、重复性逆协同发音 “lamb” where becomes more like the following sound m,it is known as anticipatory coarticulation 先期协同发音/逆化协同发音.,1. Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible（可见的） discrete（分离的，不相关联的） segment（段，片，节，部分） of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth),phonemes, phones and allophones,i) phonetic（语音的） unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with ,2. Phoneme （音位）：,the smallest unit of speech sounds in a language which can be used to distinguish meaning. (in the mind) i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.,3. allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.,e.g.: pot, spot: ph vs. p Allophones of the phoneme /p/,Phonetically different but psychologically the same to speakers, and do not make one word Different from another in meaning.,Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Assimilation: phonological term Coarticulation: more of a phonetic term,Assimilation rules (同化规则),If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.逆同化 The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 顺同化 Nasalization鼻音化, dentalization齿音化, and velarization腭音化 are all instances of assimilation.,同化的两种可能性及其例子,2.4 Distinctive features 区别特征,the feature that can distinguish one phoneme from another when other features are alike. eg: /p/, its distinctive features are -voiced, +bilabial, -nasal. However, aspirated is not a distinctive feature for /p/. Some of the major distinctions include consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced.,These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by + and so voiced obstruents are marked +voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced.,2.5 Suprasegmental features 超音段特征,Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are:,Chapter 3 From morpheme to phrase,3.2 Types of Morphemes,Depending on what criteria you attempt to follow, morphemes can be sub-classified into different types. Question: Whats the difference between the two morphemes: book and ish? 3.2.1. Free morpheme and bound morpheme Free morpheme (自由语素): those morphemes may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves. E.g. bed, tree, sing, dance,Bound morpheme (粘着语素): those morphemes cannot occur alone, but must appear with at least another morpheme. E.g. Which are bound in the following words? “dogs”, “national”, “disclose “recorded”,mono-morphemic: all mono-morphemic words are free morpheme. poly-morphemic: A: compounds, which consist wholly of free morphemes. B: bound morpheme,root,poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes. a root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.all words contain a root morpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。 such as in word:international,nation is the root.,affix,an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme,so affix is naturally bound.词缀本质上是粘着语素。 分类：前缀prefix:para-,mini- 后缀suffix:-tion 中缀infix:feet中的-ee-,stem,如friends 中的friend- 和friendships 中的friendship-都是词干，词根与词干可相同可不同。,词干是指去掉一个词缀后所剩下的词素或词素组合。,. Inflectional and derivational affix Inflectional affix (屈折词缀)are not used to produce new words in the English language, but rather to add a minute or delicate grammatical function of a word.,Inflectional Morphemes,Eight inflectional suffixes in English 1. plural marker e.g. chair chairs 2. possessive e.g. God Gods 3. third person singular present tense e.g. work works 4. progressive e.g. work working 5. past tense e.g. wait waited 6. past participle e.g. wait waited 7. comparative degree e.g. fast faster 8. superlative degree e.g. quick - quickest,Derivational morphemes (派生语素) are used to make new words in the language and are often used to change the category, or grammatical class of words , e.g. modern-modernize, length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.,屈折词缀和衍生词缀的区别,1.屈折词缀的多产性不如衍生词缀 2.屈折词缀不会改变其所依附的词语的词类，而衍生词缀可能会改变词类，且改变词汇意义。如small-smallness,brother-brotherhood. 3.是否添加屈折词缀很多时候还取决于短语或句子中的其他要素，如the boy likes,i like,而衍生词缀通常是基于简单的意义差异的,如clever or cleverness. 4.屈折词缀主要是后缀，用于词尾，如walks,衍生词缀则可能是前缀online，或后缀teacher。,find finds finding found,mat mats,since, when, seldom, hello. invariable words: They dont have inflective changes.,Classification of Words,variable words: may have inflective changes,1. Invariable and Variable words,2. Grammatical and lexical words,work for referring to substance, action and quality,Work for constructing group,phrase, clause, clause complex, text,3. Closed and open class words,4. word class,除了原本的9个词类：名词，代词，形容词，动词，副词，介词，连词，语气词interjection和冠词。 新增词类： 小品词particles 不定式to,否定词 n not,look back 中的back. 助动词auxiliaries 代词形式pro-form 限定词determiners the,a,some,all,word formation-lexical change,新词语的产生方式除提到过的复合词Compound(playboy)和派生词Derivation(delightful)外，还有如下： 1.Invention新创词语，如Coke可乐 2.Blending混成法，如smoke+frog-smog 3.Abbreviation缩写法，如Advertisement-ad,4.Acronym首字母缩略法，如World Bank-WB 5.Back-formation逆构词法,如editor(名词编辑)-edit(动词编辑) 6.Analogical creation类比构词法，如slay-slew(过去式，旧词)-slayed（过去式，新词） 7.Class shift词类转换，如hog-名词（猪）-动词（贪婪攫取） 8.Borrowing借词法，如encore(法语借来，要求再演再唱),Chapter 4 From word to text,Syntactic Relations(句法关系),1. Positional relation（位置关系） Position relation, or WORD ORDER（词序）, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. 又称syntagmatic relations（Saussure）,或horizontal relations水平关系，chain relations链状关系. Violation of positional relation Boy the ball kicked that. The ball kicked the boy. The teacher saw the students.,Firstly, it refers to class or sets of words substituted for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word or a particular set.,The _ smiles. Man Boy Girl The _ smiles. strong man Tallest boy Pretty girl He went there _. yesterday Last week The day before,2. Relation of substitutability（替代关系）,又称associative relation联想关系(Saussure)，paradigmatic relation聚合关系(Hjemslv)，vertical垂直关系或choice选择关系,3. Relation of co-occurrence （同现关系）partcially syntagmatic and partially paradigmatic,The words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. (preceded by) NP (followed by) A pretty girl smiles. The boy sings. The Asian man cries.,A,B,C,Immediate constituents analysis 直接成分分析 Tree diagram,john passed the knife and saw through the window.,endocentric and exocentric constructions向心结构和离心结构,Endocentric constructions（向心结构) the constructions whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents which serve as the HEAD or CENTRE (中心词). NP: these two oldest stone BRIDGE VP: will be LEAVING AP: very LATE,a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole. In other words, there is no HEAD or CENTER in the group. Basic sentence: The boy smiled. PP: he hid behind the door Predicate (V+O): He kicked the door. Connective (be +complement): He seemed angry.,Exocentric constructions （离心结构）,Coordination and Subordination 并列和从属,Coordination (并列) : a common syntactic pattern formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but, and or. e.g. The two constituents (words, phrases, clauses) in coordination pattern have the same equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.,Subordination（从属）,the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Two dogs Swimming in the lake is fun. Subordinate constituents= Modifiers（修饰语） modifying the Head. Subordinate clauses: Complement clauses: 补语从句 Adjunct clause（adverbial clauses）：附加语/状语从句 Relative clause : 关系从句,Syntactic Function,区分 Syntactic function 句法功能 Category范畴,Syntactic Function The relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of functions Subjects Predicate Object Modifier（修饰语） Complement （补语）,Category（范畴）,Category refers to Narrowly, the classes and functions, e.g. n., v.; subject, predicate; NP, VP, etc. Name of categories: number数:he laughs,they laugh gender性：he,she,it,actress case格：teachers agreement一致关系,Chapter 5 Meaning,The referential Theory,is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to. a linguistic sign derives its meaning from that which refers to something in the reality (referent,thing). something abstract behind the concrete thing which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed through our minds-concept(thought,reference),The Semantic Triangle,This theory holds that words and things are related through the mediation of concepts of the mind.,(thought or refenence)concept,word (Symbol),thing (Referent),Linguistic elements such as words or sentences,The object, etc, in the world of experience,According to this theory, there is no direct link between symbol and referent (between word and the thing). The link is via thought, the concepts of our minds.,Conceptual meaning,Leech用涵义（sense）作为他所说的概念意义的简称，从这种意义上说，涵义等同于概念。涵义与指称的区别类似于内涵connotation与外延denotation的区别。It is denotative (it is concerned with the relationship between the word and thing it refers to); overlap to reference This is the basic meaning of the word. This type of meaning is logic. This means in different languages, words having the same conceptual meaning refers to the same thing.,Leech Sense,(2) Connotative meaning,Connotation: the abstract properties of an entity a word denotes (in philosophy) Denotation: the concrete entities having these properties. e.g. human Woman: frail, gentle, sensitive prone to tears, ,sense 涵义关系relations synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,etc.,sameness relation, oppositeness relation inclusiveness relation.,total synonymy is rare,the so-called synonymys are all context dependent.they are differ one way or another,they may differ in style:Little Tom buy/purchase a toy bear. Connotations: Im thrifty, Tom are economical, and he is stingy. Dialectal difference: Autumn / fall in connotations,or in dialectal differences.,synonymy,Antonomy,Antonomy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning. Differents kinds of antonyms Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) Complementary antonymy （互补） converse antonymy（反向）,gradable antonyms:It is a matter of degree,the antonyms are the two extremes of the degree,can be modified by “very and have comparative and superlative degrees,The denial of one is not necessarily the other. 三个特征：不好不是坏的意思； 没有绝对的标准，大轿车比小飞机小； 表示高程度的词代替两个，如“你多大了”,complementary antonyms,It is the matter of either one or the other. e.g. alive or dead;male/female; 特征：The denial of one is the other； can not be modified with word “very” （“very male” *）； there is no cover term （how male is it ?）,gradable,complementary,relational opposites（converse antonymy）,This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. 并不构成肯定否定的对立，而是表现两个实体之间的一种反向关系。总是有两方存在。 Husband/wife; below / above father/son; host: guest, employer: employee, doctor/patient; below, before buy/sell; borrow/lend,Hyponymy上下义关系,Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Superordinate/ hyperonym(上坐标词）: the more general term / the upper term Hyponym（下义词）: the more specific term/ the lower term, members Co-hyponyms（同下义词）: members of the same class Auto-hyponym(自我下义词）：hyponym of itself.,Animal(动物) bird fish insect animal（哺乳动物） human animal tiger lion elephant .,Auto-hyponym,superordinate,Co-hyponym,Hyponym,Homophony (同音异义）：the same pronunciation but with different spelling and meaning,I meat flour bear sea won,eye meet flower bare see one,eye meet flower bare see one,I meat flour bear sea won,polysemy（多义关系）,When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be a polysemous or polysemic word. The phenomenon is termed as polysemy. samples:bank,Meronymy（整体部分关系）,Meronymy refers to the phenomenon that a word means a part of another. Samples: body/neck drawer/desk,componential analysis成分分析,词义并非不可分析的整体，他可看做是一个不同语义特征的复合体，因为有比词义更小的语义单位，如boy可分为三个部分，human人，young年轻，male男性 如把young 和adult 合并为adult,把young表示成 adult,Chapter 6 language and cognition,language acquisition,研究第一个对其儿子的言语发展做日志记录 Diary e.g. Charles Darwin 后来 Tape recorders 、Videos and computer 1. Holophrastic stage 独词句阶段 one-word stage Shortly before their first birthday, they began to understand words and produce them usually in isolation 持续两个月到一年 words for objects 具体名词，说明动作行为的词及日常用语和社交常用词 words or actions, motions, routines modifiers routines used in social interaction,Language changes: 1. vocabulary growth increases，one word every two waking hours词汇量增加，两小时学一个 2. primitive syntax begins, with two-word strings 简单句法出现，产生两个词的搭配：all dry
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