English Euphemisms in the Intercultural Communication英语毕业论文

English Euphemisms in the Intercultural CommunicationIntroductionEnglish Euphemism, which is an indirect and roundabout expression employed to mention something unpleasant, is a form of language as well as a cultural phenomenon. With the development of society and economy, smooth and successful communications are playing a more and more important role in every social class and field, especially in the intercultural communication, of which the tactful usage of euphemism is the most essential part. Sometimes euphemisms are used for avoiding taboos; and sometimes they are used for being polite or considering the feelings of other people. The developing civilization of the society requires people to be more cultivated and polite, while euphemism is just such a polite and elegant expression used in place of a more common term which the user fears might be offensive. It is necessary in all social situations from everyday conversations to serious discussions. Any communicative principles would be impossible without the appropriate understanding and use of English euphemisms. Misunderstanding and improper use of euphemism may create communication barriers to intercultural communication. As we all know, any ignorance of different social customs and diverse cultural values may not only cause communicative obstacles, but also bring about prejudice, offence, even hostility, all of which are not the consequences we expect in the process of communication. So we know that language is not only the carrier of culture, but also the representative of it. In other words, language is influenced by culture, and in the meantime it reflects culture. In order to avoid the misunderstanding and conflict caused by communicative hinders, we have to know the euphemistic expressions of certain things, especially when communicating with others from multi-cultural backgrounds. Therefore, mastering a good knowledge of English euphemism and its diverse values in intercultural communication is of particular importance. 1. Definition and Features of English Euphemism1.1 Definition of English EuphemismEuphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. In the process of communication, the unsuitable or too direct words will make people feel uncomfortable and even angry. Then there is a great necessity for us to express our emotion and exchange ideas in a tactful way. It is known that euphemism is a form of language intentionally created in social communication to achieve ideal purposes. (王莉, 1988.)The word “euphemism” was derived from the Greek word “euphemisms”, which means “fair speech”. The prefix “eu” means “good, sound well” and “pheme” means “saying” or “speech”. And thus the literal meaning of “euphemism” is “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”. That is to say, euphemism is used as an alternative for unpleasant expression. In Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, it is the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted. Rawson Blunt, a British writer, defined euphemism as “a good favorable interpretation of a bad word.” Encyclopedia Britannica also defines euphemism as “a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms”. From the above mentioned, we could clearly see that euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression. It is one form of language and a linguistic phenomenon.1.2 Features of English Euphemism1.2.1Indirect and ImplicitThe most important character of euphemism is indirect and implicit. Euphemism always gives people hints in a roundabout way. We can infer the deeper meaning and intention from the context.1.2.2 UniversalityUniversality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesnt come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connected with sex, death, or body functions are replaced by euphemisms. And the public has accepted this kind of use. 1.2.3 The Feature of TimesThe changes of language depend on the need and changes of the society. And euphemism undergoes a process of metabolism. It bears a marked brand of times.1.2.4 Regional FeatureThere are two causes of regional differences. First is a regional cultural difference. In different regions, the culture there will effect the development of euphemism. Second is the difference of geographic environments. 1.2.5 Diversity of Lingual RegionSomeone thinks that only upper and middle class use euphemism. But this conclusion is too absolute. We can analyze it from three aspects:The difference of gender and age usually influence the choice of the synonyms of euphemism. Difference of profession or identity also plays an important part. Euphemism changes while the profession and identity change. This is a synchrony variation. Difference of style or context is another aspect. Euphemism is restricted by the context. For example, “On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. (F. Engels, Speech at the Graveside of Karl Marx)” This example involves the passing away of a great man. And the phrase “ceased to think” echoes “thinker”. This euphemism produces a good effect. 2 Functions of English Euphemisms in Intercultural CommunicationLike a kind of lubrication, euphemism enables people to express what cannot be uttered directly and ensures communication to be carried smoothly. It is a language strategy in civilized society and it has many social functions. (胡壮麟,姜望琪.语言教学教程,2004)A full knowledge of euphemism can avoid embarrassment in communication with multi-background people, which means its very essential for everyone to know euphemisms of different countries well. In the meantime, if we can comprehend its functions skillfully, we will make use of it in a more proper way. In the following paragraphs we will talk something about the social values of euphemism.2.1 Taboo FunctionTaboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of the unpleasant, inelegant things. Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from taboo. From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. Euphemism has been using for a long time, and it is closely related to taboo. When people try to avoid and give up taboo words, they have to find another word to replace this vacancy at the same time. Hence, people created euphemism. The evading function of euphemism also works today. Some taboo notions cannot be easily removed from peoples mind.2.2 Polite FunctionPolite function of euphemism is to avoid inelegant things and make people feel pleasant. It means that in real life, when people meet with some unpleasant things or behaviors, they usually choose some vague expressions to avoid making bold or hurting others feeling-to use euphemism.2.3 Covering up FunctionIn Vagueness Language, covering up function is taken as deliberately withholding information. Western political life gives birth to euphemism. Some politicians and news Medias have made good use of the vagueness of euphemism to cover up the facts of some events for the purpose of making the politics, economy, and military more steady.Concealing the dark side of society is to alleviate the social contradictions caused by sex, violence, poverty, unemployment, and crime. People dont need to be surprised at these phenomena.There are also some euphemisms about economy. The euphemisms here are in the true sense of the word “false”. They are used to cover up the true nature of events, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo technical words.”2.4 Inducing FunctionSometimes, people use euphemism to make their statement more persuasive. Thus the cosmetic words have a special communicative function, which is called inducing function. Euphemism has been widely applied in advertisement and sales promotion activities.Those euphemisms desalinate the unpleasant feeling that the former concepts give us and intensify a feeling of more reliable and elegant. As a result, those products will be identified with the consumers and achieved the promotion goal. From the pragmatic view, the achieving of inducing function is caused by the glorification of the intrinsic meaning.2.5 Tactical FunctionIf a same meaning is expressed in many different ways, their effects are entirely different. This is what we called the art of speaking. If we apply this strategy to our daily life, our life will be more colorful.For example, on the plane, there are some bags that can be used by the passengers to shoot his cookies. People dont print the words “vomit bag” on the surface of the bag. Instead, they use the words “for motion discomfort”. And the result proved that the vomit phenomenon has reduced. Because compared with the former words, the word “for motion discomfort” prevents the passengers from vomiting when in a state of airsickness. This is the tactical function of euphemism.2.6 Humor FunctionJocular euphemism has been used to help people face the fact more easily. For example, people use “push up daisies” to take place of be “buried” because the former words can reduce peoples horror towards death. And “be sent into prison” is replaced by “live at governments expense”. This expression is witty. Another example, “after three days in Japan, the spinal column becomes extraordinarily flexible.” Its implicative is that in Japan, people are very polite. They usually bow many times a day to greet someone.3 English Euphemisms in the Intercultural CommunicationWhen the rapid development of science and technology. Our world becomes a global village. People from all around the world have a stronger tie than ever before. Intercultural communication turns out to be a hot topicEvery day，every time，we are having with people in various backgrounds. “One does not need to explain why one has to go to the toilet, go to the mens (1adies1 room, rest room, washroom, 1avatory and the John. If one does have to explain, it would be to wash ones hands, to relieve oneself, or to see a man about a horse, or become nature calls (the last two if)fl humorous way); if a woman. One does so to powder her nose, to fresh up. If one does have trouble with ones diet，or has an upset stomach, the doctor might ask“How are your bowel movement?” and say. “We need a stool specimen”. For Chinese studying abroad, or for interpreters accompanying foreigners to the doctors, not knowing the English for such things can be quite a predicament. (Deng Liu, 1989)7111e more you know, the more it helps. The relationship of euphemism and intercultural communication is mutualbenefit.The value and moral concepts implied in English and Chinese Euphemisms are different. For example, the Chinese culture places all emphasis on Minghui(名讳).In the rigidly stratified feudal society, the powerful could do whatever they want, but the weak were not allowed to do anything. In ancient times, people cannot call the emperors name. The common people even have no fight to mention the characters having the same sound as the Emperors name. The name of Qin shi huang, the first emperor of Qing dynasty, is Ying zheng. So people changed Zhengyue(正月)into Duanyue(端月). Another official named Tian deng forbade the use of characters having the same sound as his name. So he changed Fangden(放灯)into Fanghuo(放火). Therefore, there is an allusion:”只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯”.However，British and American people think that God created the human，all men ale created equal，and there are few euphemisms about name in EnglishThey even call their parents name directly to show the friendly relationFurthermore, it is inoffensive for the young to have the same names as the old people. This kind of cultural system is different from that of China3.1Communicative Obstacles Caused by Different CulturesBecause of belonging to different languages, different cultural traditions, different historical backgrounds and other different factors, people usually feel difficult talking with others, especially in intercultural communication. In other words, we always meet some communication obstacles caused by ignorance of other countries culture. For instance, Chinese and Americans are born to different cultures and undoubtedly they are different in many aspects. So cultural differences may be the blocks of intercultural communication and how to clear away the obstacles has become the common problem we have to face and solve.In the long period of evolution and practice, human beings have been knowing and remaking the objective world, and in the meantime establishing and developing their own languages and cultures, thus they have formed various language patterns and cultural communities. As a matter of fact, the study of euphemism may clear away the obstacles to some extent. There are abundant euphemisms that flourish in the cultures of both Chinese and English, which may lead to the conflict because of different comprehension of euphemism. So through the study of euphemism, we can have a better understanding of the cultural differences between Chinese and American, and then communicate better during the process.3.2 Relationship between English Euphemisms and CulturesCulture refers to the entire way of a society such as customs，traditions，social habits，values，beliefs and language. Different cultures have their own different history，politics and thinking way. Therefore, the value and moral concepts implied in English and Chinese Euphemisms are different.For example, Chinese culture places an emphasis on name. In the rigidly stratified feudal society，the powerful could do whatever they want，but the weak were not allowed to do anything. In ancient times, people cannot call the emperors name. However, British and American people think that God created the human. So all men are created equally and there are few euphemisms about name in English. They even call their parents name directly to show the friendly relation. Furthermore, it is inoffensive for the young to have the same names as the old people. Thus, we can see that there are different euphemisms in different cultures. Having a good knowledge of the cultures of English-speaking countries will benefit us a lot in the process of using euphemisms and also smooth our intercultural communication.3.3 Different Usages of English Euphemism in Different CulturesEnglish and Chinese belong to different cultures, so different cultural backgrounds and traditions determine the emergence and usage of its own euphemism. It is of great significance for us to master the usages of euphemism of diverse cultures, particularly in the intercultural communication. In the following paragraphs we will see the different cultures and values through the comparisons of English and Chinese euphemisms.3.3.1 English Euphemisms related to religion In the Western society most speakers believe in Christianity. This belief has a great influence on their behavior and their language. In the ancient times，people are forbidden to call God directly because God is treated with respect amounting to terror. In Holy Bible，we can see the sentence that “You shall not misuse the name of LORD you god，for the LORD will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name.” God name is written as G-d by devout Jews or written with four consonants such as “Gosh”.In China，Buddhism has great influence on euphemisms. For example，there are some euphemisms of death such as “涅磐”, “圆寂”, etc. Confucianism is another Chinese religion. Being immortal is the best realm. People seek the life of immortal .So the euphemisms about death are all related to immortal such as “仙游”, “仙逝”, etc. These words reflect persons desire，they want to prolong life.From the examples above，we can infer that religion influences not only their life but also their languages.3.3.2 English Euphemisms Related to SexPeople feel embarrassed by sex，so there are a lot of euphemisms for sexual activities. In Chinese，certain parts of human body are usually expressed as “下身”, “私处”, etc. Sexual actions are said in Chinese to be “过夫妻生活”, “同房”, etc. In English，people use “go to bed with” or “have an affair with” to express the meaning of “have sex with” and the words “hooker”，“call girl” also show the euphemistic sense. In addition, in western culture, sex is not ugly but natural and wonderful, so the level of obscurity is far away from Chinese.3.3.3 English Euphemisms Related to Excretion English has variety of euphemisms in this category. Excreta and acts of human excretion are to be avoided in polite conversation. People do not say “go to the toilet” or “go to stool”. Instead, they use “to freshen up” or “get some fresh air”, etc. as their euphemisms. 3.3.4 English Euphemisms Related to Death Death is an inevitable stage at the end of ones lifes journey. People use euphemisms to respect the dead，or to memorize them，sometimes to praise them，sometimes only to avoid using this dreadful word.There are hundreds of euphemisms about “death” in both Chinese and English.In ordinary talking，people will say “去世”, “与世长辞”, etc. These words and phrases take the place to show respect and sorrow. In English，there also exist a lot of euphemisms such as “pass away”, “go West”, “go to heaven”，“to fall asleep in the Lord”，“to be in Abrahams bosom” and so on.In addition，with the development of science，some expressions of “death” have been out of date. For example，“to pass over” or “ to go beyond”. Many new expressions such as “mercy killing” and “to be grounded for good” have been come forth continuously.3.3.5 English Euphemisms Related to Old AgeChinese and English have different feelings about “old age”. Chinese is proud of being old. In Chinese there are few euphemisms for old. People show more respect to old people and old people are thought to be more experienced. Lao(老)is not a taboo. On the contrary，by using surname with lao(老), the speaker can show his affection. However，Americans are afraid of becoming old. They want to act，feel and look young. In their opinion，the old people live a lonely life and are no longer energetic. Now it is the old age of American population，social safety and ability of supporting parents are insufficient day by day. Old people seem as social burden on economy，so there are a lot of mild and roundabout expressions to show this concept of “old age” vocabulary. For example, “advanced in age”, “elderly”, “senior citizens”, “the mature”, “seasoned man”, etc. 3.3.6 English Euphemisms Related to Fatness In western countries，“fat” is a symbol of stupid. So, to mention the word “fat” directly is impolite because the word fat is a word which contains the derogatory sense .The euphemism of “fat” is “weight-watcher” in English. And people say “heavyset” or “on the heavy side” to express euphemistic sense. But the fatness contains commendatory meaning in the Chinese language such as “富态”, “发福”. For example，on the road，someone say “Hello，havent seen you for a long time，you look a bit fat this time.” This sentence is uttered by Chinese people as a greeting. Chinese think being fat is a good thing. And in Chinese peoples eyes, if a person is successful in everything, he must gain weight. 3.3.7 English Euphemisms Related to Lack of MoneyIn Chinese modern society，people are afraid of being poor，so a lot of euphemisms have been developed. The shame of poverty makes it a natural target for euphemism. People who have not enough money and can not provide for themselves use such terms as “手头紧” or “囊中羞涩” to avoid mentioning the dreadful word “poor”. In the western country，people use “temporarily short of liquidity” to express the meaning of “te