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,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,漫谈,专长与认知师徒法,华东师范大学心理与认知科学学院,吴庆麟,2011,年,10,月,漫谈专长与认知师徒法,一、专长研究的启示,（一）专长研究的若干结论,1,、,Experts Excel Mainly in Their own Domains.,There is little evidence that a person highly skilled in one domain can transfer the skill to another.As Minsky and Papert(1974)noted:”a very intelligent person might be that way because of specific local features of his knowledge-organizing rather than because of global qualities of his thinking”(p.59).,一、专长研究的启示（一）专长研究的若干结论,The obvious reason for the excellence of experts is that they have a good deal of domain knowledge.This is easily demonstrated;for example,in medical diagnosis,expert physicians have more differentiations of common diseases into disease variants(Johnson et al.,1981).Likewise,in examining taxi drivers knowledge of routes,Chase(1983)found that expert drivers can generate a far greater number of secondary routes(i.e.,lesser known streets)than novice drivers.,The obvious reason for the exc,2.Experts perceive large meaningful patterns in their domain,.,As mentioned,this is apparent in chess,where it is well known that chess masters excel in their recall of the clusters of pieces that they see.This perceptual superiority has been replicated in several other domains,such as in the game of GO(Reitman,1976),in reading circuit diagrams(Egan rather,it reflects an organization of the knowledge base.,2.Experts perceive large mean,3.experts are fast;they are faster than novices at performing the skills of their domain,and they quickly solve problems with little error.,An easy way to observe the skill of master chess players is to watch them play“lightning chess,”where they have only a few seconds to decide on a move.,3.experts are fast;they are,There are at least two ways to explain experts speed.For simple tasks,such as typing,the speed that experts have acquired comes with many hours of practices,which makes the skill more automatic and frees up memory capacity for processing other aspects of the task(see Gentner,this volume).,There are at least two ways to,A further possible explanation for experts speed in solving problems rests on the idea emphasized earlier that experts can often arrive at a solution without conducting extensive search.The patterns that chess experts see on the board suggest reasonable moves directly,presumably because,through many hours of playing,they have stored straightforward condition-action rules in which a specific pattern(the condition)will trigger a stereotypic sequence of moves.,A further possible explanation,4.experts have superior short-term and long-term memory.,With recently presented materials,experts recall seems to exceed the limits of short-term memory.This is not because their short-term memory is larger than other humans,but because the automaticity of many portions of their skills frees up resources for greater storage.Experts seem to excel in long-term recall as well.For example,in chess,it is not uncommon for chess masters to recognize plays from certain well-known games.,4.experts have superior short,5.experts see and represent a problem in their domain at a deeper(more principled)level than novices;novices tend to represent a problem at a superficial level).,These results indicate that both experts and novices have conceptual categories,but that the experts categories are semantically or principle-based,whereas the categories of the novices are syntactically or surface-feature oriented.,5.experts see and represent a,6.experts spend a great deal of time analyzing a problem qualitatively.,Protocols show that,at the beginning of a problem-solving episode,experts typically try to“understand”a problem,whereas novices plunge immediately into attempting to apply equations and to solve for an unknown.What do the experts do when they qualitatively analyze a problem?Basically they build a mental representation from which they can infer relations that can define the situation,and they add constraints to the problem.,6.experts spend a great deal,7.experts have strong self-monitoring skills,Experts seem to be more aware than novices of when they make errors,why they fail to comprehend,and when they need to check their solutions.,7.experts have strong self-mo,(,三,),启示：知而获智,智达高远,(,二,),当今知识分类观图解,(三)启示：知而获智,智达高远(二)当今知识分类观图解,二、解读认知师徒法,（一）问题的提出,“仅是在上一个世纪的下半叶，仅是在一些工业化的社会中，正规的学校教育才成为教育年轻人的一种广为流行的方法，而在学校出现之前，师徒关系一直是一种最为通常的学习手段，并被用以作为传授某一实际专长领域所需知识的手段。”,二、解读认知师徒法（一）问题的提出,（二）两者的差异,“正规的学校教育与师徒法的差异是多方面的，不过，就我们的观念看来，其中一个最为关键的差异是，将学习之事委托给学校的一个副产品是，知识、技能已变得与他们在实际世界中的使用相分离，但在师徒法的学习中，我们要求学生所学的目标技能,(target skills),，不仅为老道的参与者一直在使用，而且也成为实现有意义的学习任务的一种手段。换句话说，师徒法将知识和技能的学习融于社会及功能的环境中。”,（二）两者的差异,（三）讨论的构架,实现学校学习与师徒法的整合,认知师徒法的三种成功模式,设计学习环境的一种框架,（三）讨论的
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