Prototype Theory

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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Prototype Theory,Presenter:,T,ory,Development History,Prototype Theory,Categorization,Classification of category,Prototype Theory,Applications,Limitations,Aristotle-Classical Category Theory,亚里士多德是西方哲学史上第一个对哲学范畴进行系统阐述的学者。,亚里士多德提出的经典范畴观认为,一切范畴皆由范畴成员共有的一组充分而且必要的特性来界定。这些特征是二元对立的,一个物体如果具备某个范畴成员的所有的重要特性,便可认定它属于该范畴,否则不属于该范畴。因此,不存在“好像属于该范畴、又好像不属于该范畴”的情况。即是说,不同范畴之间存在清晰的界限;在同一范畴中,各成员之间的关系是平等的,即不存在典型成员与边缘成员之间的差别,.,Wittgenstein-Family Resemblance Theory,Wittgenstein,对家族相似概念的论证主要集中在“,spiel”,(游戏)这个概念上。他指出种种游戏并没有一种共同的特征,而是形成了一个家族,家族成员具有某些相似之处。一个概念下的各种现象,A,、,B,、,C,、,D,并不具有唯一共同性质,而是,A,相似于,B, B,相似于,C,C,相似于,D,。,维特根斯坦的“家族相似性”对于认知语言学的一个重要贡献在于它揭示了语义范畴具有“中心”(典型)和“边缘”(非典型成员)的内部结构,Rosch,-Prototype Category Theory,语言学家,Labov,和,Rosch,先后发表了他们对于自然范畴的试验研究结果,以此证明维氏的“家族相似性”原理适用于描述自然界中的许多范畴,即许多自然范畴都具有维氏所说的“家族相似性”。,Labov,和,Rosch,把具有“家族相似性”的这些自然范畴称为“原型范畴”(,prototype category,),即具有原型(,prototype,即范畴的典型成员)的范畴。从而建立了现代范畴理论,原型范畴理论。,Definitions of Categorization,Principles of Categorization,Levels of Categorization,Definitions of Categorization,Wikipedia,:Categorization is the process in which experiences and concepts are recognised and understood.,Categorization implies that concepts are classified into,categories,based on commonalities and usually for some specific purpose. Categorization is fundamental in decision making, in all kinds of interaction with the environment, and in language.,F.Ungerer,H.J.Schmid,:,The mental process of classification. And its products are the cognitive categories. Categorization is something that underlies the mental processes of language comprehension and language production.,Vyvyan,and Evans:,Our ability to identify perceived similarities (and differences) between entities and thus group them together,.,Definitions of Categorization,赵艳芳:,主客观相互作用对事物进行分类的过程即范畴化的过程,其结果是认知范畴。,王寅:,我们拟将范畴化描写为:是一种基于体验,以主客体互动为出发点,对外界事体(事物、事件。现象等)进行主观概括和类属划分的心智过程,是一种赋予世界以一定结构,并使其从无序转向有序的理性活动,也是人们认识世界的一个重要手段。,Definitions of Categorization,Principles of categorization,Principle of cognitive economy,This principle states that an organism, like a human being, attempts to gain as much information as possible about its environment while minimizing cognitive effort and resources. This cost-benefit balance drives category formation. In other words, rather than storing separate information about every individual stimulus experienced, humans can group similar stimuli into categories, which maintains economy in cognitive representation.,Principles of categorization,Principle of perceived world structure,The world around us has,correlational,相互关系,structure. For instance, it is a fact about the world that wings most frequently co-occur with feathers and the ability to fly (as in birds), rather than with fur or the ability to breathe underwater. This principle states that humans rely upon,correlational,structure of this kind in order to form and organize categories.,Levels of Categorization,Superordinate level,Basic or generic level,Su,b,ordinate level,Taxonimies of categories are organized into levels of categorization. There are three levels:,Superordinate level,:,Superordinate categories are the most general ones. They are the ones that are at the top of a folk taxonomy.,Levels of Categorization,Su,b,ordinate level :,Subordinate level categories are the most specific ones. They are the members of the basic level categories. They have clearly identifiable gestalts and many individuating specific features.,Basic or generic level :,C,ategories at the basic, or middle, level are perceptually and conceptually the more salient. The generic level of a category tends to elicit the most responses and richest images, providing a basic gestalt, and seems to be the psychologically basic level. Basic level categories are members of superordinate level categories.,E.g.,furniture,/,chair,/,table,/,lamp,/,kitchen chair,/living-room chair,/kitchen table/dining room table/floor lamp/desk lamp,Category,Definitions,赵艳芳,:,严格来讲,范畴是事物在认知中的归类。,F.Ungerer,H.J.Schmid,:,The product of the mental process of classification. They can be understood as mental concepts stored in our mind.,王 寅:,范畴是人们在互动体验的基础上对客观事物普遍本质在思维上的概括反映,是由一个通常聚集在一起的属性所构成的“完形”概念构成的。,Basic Rules of Categories,1) categories are defined in terms of a family of resemblance rather than by means of a set of necessary and sufficient features.,2) membership in a category is determined by the perceived distance of resemblance of the entity to the prototype, there is no clear-cut boundaries. But there is a continuum.,3) All members of a category dont enjoy equal status.,Definitions of Prototype,Basic contents of Prototype Theory,Factors that influence the Prototype,Definitions of Prototype,The term prototype has been defined in,Eleanor Roschs,study Natural Categories (1973) and was first defined as a stimulus, which takes a salient position in the formation of a category as it is the first stimulus to be associated with that category. Later, she redefined it as the most central member of a category.,Definitions of Prototype,WIKI,A relatively abstract mental representation that assembles the key attributes or features that best represent instances of a given category. Accordingly, the prototype is viewed as a schematic representation of the most salient or central characteristics associated with members of the category in question. According to Prototype Theory, the prototype provides structure to and serves to organize a given category, a phenomenon known as prototype structure. An important consequence of this is that categories exhibit typicality effects.,Definitions of Prototype,学者们对“原型”这一术语的两种不同解释,:,(1) 指范畴内的具体的典型代表。,(2),指范畴成员的概括性图式表征,(,schematic,representation).,Taloy(1989:59) 认为“. the prototype can be understood as a schematic representation,o,f the conceptual core of a category (原型可被理解为范畴的概念核心的图式表征)”,并认为实例不是原型,仅例示了原型。,比如:按照第一种解释,“鸟”这个范畴的原型就是,知更鸟,。,按照第二种解释,“鸟”这种范畴的原型并不是任何一 种实体,而是对范畴进行抽象的图示表征。,1.,范畴内的各个成员由家族相似性联系在一起,并非满足一组充分必要条件。,“,家族相似性,”,意味着范畴中所有成员都由一个相互交叉的相似性网络连接在一起。,如,“,鸟,”,中成员的特性包括:有羽、生蛋、有喙、会飞、短尾、体型小、重量轻等,知更鸟完全满足这一特征,鸵鸟、企鹅虽然没有会飞、体型小等特征,但它们仍是,“,鸟,”,范畴的成员,并具备了鸟类的其它特征,如有羽、生蛋等。范畴成员之间的家族相似性使范畴内部构成一个连续体。,Basic Contents of Prototype Theory,2.,范畴的边界具有模糊性,相邻范畴互相重叠、互相渗透。,例如:色彩范畴中,典型的红色、黄色、黑色容易被识到,但若让人们指出紫红是属于红色范畴还是紫色范畴,可能就不容易做出判断或答案因人而异,原因在于各个颜色范畴的边界是模糊的、连续的,紫红处于红色和紫色的交叉处。,3.,范畴原型与该范畴成员共有的特性最多,与相邻范畴的成员共有特征最少;范畴边缘成员与该范畴成员相似的特征较少,而与其它范畴的成员共性最多,(,Ungerer,Schmid,2001),。也就是说,不同范畴的原型之间特征差异,最大。,例如:,Rosch,实验中椅子原型与“家具”中的沙发、床、书柜、衣柜等成员共有特征最多,而与“水果”成员的共性最少;同时,椅子和“水果”的原型,苹果的差异最大。,4.,范畴成员依据具有该范畴所有特性的多寡,具有不同的典型性(,prototypicality,),因此范畴成员之间并不平等。原型是范畴内最典型的成员,其它成员由的典型性显著,有的则处于范畴的边缘位置。,例如:,Rosch,的实验结果表明在“鸟”这个范畴中,知更鸟是最典型的成员,它具有“鸟”的所有特性。麻雀、金丝雀、鸽子等属于典型性较高的成员,它们与知更鸟的共同特性相对较多。而鸵鸟、企鹅则处于“鸟”的边缘位置,它们和知更鸟共有的特性非常少。,5.,范畴呈放射状结构,原型位于范畴结构的中心位置;多数范畴呈现的不是单一中心结构(,monocentric,structure,),而是多中心结构(,polycentric structure,),即某些范畴通常具有多个原型,原型之间通过家族相似性获得联系。,例如:汉语中“水果”范畴的成员梨、桃都是极具典型性的,都可以视为原型。,Factors That Influence The Prototype,越来越,多的学者意识到原型作为范畴的心理表征并非,实现存在,也,不是稳定不变的,范畴,原型受到,许多因素的影响。,首先,,范畴原型取决于,语境。,如,:,a. The hunter took his gun, left the lodge and called his,dog.,b. Right from the start of the race the,dogs,began chasing the rabbit.,例,a,是打猎的语境,,dog“,带回猎物,”,、,“,指名击中的猎物方向,”,等特征得到凸显,而,“,吠,”,、,“,四条腿,”,、,“,高兴时摇尾,”,等基本特征,则受到,压制,因此,a,句中,dog,的原型是一种猎犬;而,b,句是追逐比赛的场景,强调的是,dog,腿长,、,善跑,、,耐力强,等特征,而,dog,吠,、,带回猎物,等特征就显得不那么重要。因此,人们脑中会浮现出灵瑅(,greyhound,)的形象,,b,句中的,dog,的原型就不再是猎犬了。,其次,文化差异也是影响范畴原型的重要因素。同一个范畴,文化背景不同的人选择的范畴原型通常不同。,如,,我们以,【,饮料,】,为例,在中国文化背景中,汉语言中的,【,饮料,】,原型通常是茶,而西方文化中,英美人,【,饮料,】,的原型就可能是咖啡,可乐等。,一,项对中国古代经典,尔雅,的研究表明,先秦时期中国人心中,【,家畜,】,范畴的原型是马,猪是范畴中的典型成员,而现代人心目中,【,家畜,】,的代表是猪和鸡,这也是不同时期文化差异导致的结果。,最后,,个人因素也会导致对范畴原型的不同理解。,例如,:,Barsalou,(,1993,)的研究结果表明人们在描述,【,椅子,】,和,【,鸟,】,范畴的原型时,两个受试列举的特征最高只有,47%,的特征相似;即使是同一个受试,,也,可能在不同的测试情况下,给,同一范畴,列出不同的特征。,Applications of prototype category theory,原型范畴理论在语法中的应用,原型范畴理论在翻译中的应用,原型范畴理论在词汇教学中的应用,原型范畴理论在语法中的应用(以句型为例),句子根据使用目的可分为:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句,他们的原型用法为:,陈述句:说明一个事实或陈述一个看法。,疑问句:提出问题。,祈使句:表示一项请求、建议或命令。,感叹句:表示说话时的感叹、惊讶、喜悦、气愤等感情。,但也常有不少例外,他们就行程了一个句型范畴的边缘成分,如,:,陈述句还可表示感叹,如:,She is so kind-hearted,!,(她是那么的善良!),陈述句若用升调则可表示疑问,如:,You live nearby,?,疑问句可表示建议和问候,如例,1,、,2,;还可分别表示感叹、惊讶、愤怒等感情,如例,3,、,4,、,5,。,1 Would you like some more coffee?,(再喝点咖啡!),2,How do you do,!,(你好!),3 Have you ever heard of such a story!,(这样的故事你听见过吗!),4 Isnt it a beautiful tower?,(千万跟我们一起走!),5 What exactly is he up to?,(,他到底想干什么!),原型范畴理论在翻译中的应用,根据原型理论对于范畴的解释,(,Berlin and Kay,1991,),我们不难发现,翻译范畴刚好呈现出原型范畴的特点。首先,翻译虽然有诸多属性,但几乎没有哪一个属性对翻译而言既是必要的又是充分的,这也是对翻译的本质难以界定的主要原因之一。其次,翻译范畴具有模糊的范畴边界,即是说,翻译活动和生成文本的其它活动如改写、改编、创作之间,有时并无泾渭分明的界线。其三,如原型理论对一般范畴所阐释的那样,翻译范畴的各个内部成员也各具不同的成员地位:虽然翻译有多种形式和类型,有各种各样的变体,但各种可以被称为翻译的活动,在翻译范畴中并不具有同样的成员地位。如,不同的翻译实例,虽然可被同样归为翻译范畴,但并非是,“,同样好的,”,翻译实例;即使可被视为,“,同样好的,”,翻译实例,其,“,好,”,的程度又可能各不相同。,原型范畴理论在词汇教学中的指导应用,重视基本词义和延伸词义的关系,原型范畴理论将范畴区分为基本范畴、上位范畴和下位范畴人总是先形成对基本范畴的认识,再形成对上位范畴和下位范畴的认识,具有从生疏到熟悉,从简单到复杂,从单一形式到多样化的认识发展过程人们只有在习得基本词汇之后,才能更好地掌握非基本词汇儿童习得语言也是先习得基本范畴词汇,(,如,狗、白菜,),,然后才是上位范畴词汇和下位范畴词汇,(,如哈巴狗、动物;大白菜,蔬菜,),。,因此,掌握基本词汇是学习非基本词汇的基础和前提教师要重视基本词汇教学,并遵循,“,先基本范畴词汇,后上位范畴词汇和下位范畴词汇,”,的原则在词汇教学中,教师要重视基本词义的教学,在学生充分理解基本词义的基础上,再探讨基本词义和衍生意义之间的关系。从整体上去把握词义人类认知过程是一个不断范畴化的过程,只有通过分析认识基本范畴事物的特征和规律,才能不断吸纳新的范畴成员,并不断形成更高一层的上位范畴在词汇教学过程中,教师要引导学生注意不同范畴词汇之间的种种语义联系,以符合人的认知规律的方式去习得词汇,重视单词之间的语义联系,教师在分析一词多义现象时要注意引申意义和基本意义之间的联系,并在此基础上,把词与词之间在搭配和语用上的联系和区别找出来,这样才能够在扩大学生词汇量的同时,提升学生的语言应用能力此外,在经典范畴看来是同型异义词的很多现象,在原型理论看来却是一词多义现象例如,,the sharp knife,、,the sharp color,、,the sharp eyes,、,the sharp criticism,、,the sharp,winld,、“,the sharp sound,等中的,“,sharp”,,经典范畴理论认为,它在每一个词中都有独自的义素,是同型同音现象;而原型范畴理论认为,,the sharp knife,中的“,sharp”,在这些词义中,是更为中心或核心的,是其他词义的原型,其他词义是在它的基础上延伸或者辐射出来的,是一词多义现象,Limitations of Prototype Theory,It has been argued that prototype theory is inadequate as a theory of knowledge representation,:,The Problem of Ignorance and Error,The Missing Prototypes Problem,The Problem of Compositionality,The Even Number Paradox,The Problem of Ignorance and Error,It fails to explain how we can possess a concept while not knowing or being mistaken about its properties.,For example, a concept with prototype structure might incorrectly include an instance that is not in fact a member of category, or incorrectly exclude instances that are a member of the category but fail to display any of the attributes that characterize the prototype.,The Missing Prototype Problem,It is not possible to describe a prototype for some category. These category include unsubstantiated (non-existent) categories like US MONARCH and heterogeneous categories like OBJECTS THAT WEIGH MORE THAN A GRAM.,The Problem of Compositionality,This is the criticism that prototype theory provides no adequate explanation for the fact that complex categories do not reflect prototypical features of the concepts that contribution to them.,e.g. PET FISH,PET FISH is a straightforward composite of the meaning of the two conceptual categories PET and FISH. The prototypical PET is fluffy and affectionate and a prototypical FISH is grey in color and medium-sized, the prototypical PET FISH is golden fish rather than the combination of the prototypical attributes of the categories PET and FISH.,The Even Number Paradox,“,偶数,”,是一个严格按照定义区分形成的一个范畴。一般情况下,范畴内的成员具有同等的地位。但有趣的是,,Armstrong,(,1983,)发现,即使,“,偶数,”,有比较明确的定义,但人们还会认为像,2,,,4,,,6,这样比较小的数字是原型的偶数。因此,他们提出了所谓的,“,双重表征,”,理论,把原型理论与经典理论结合起来。也就是说,概念有两种表征,各有不同的功能。其中,“,核心,”,表征与经典定义相似。这一表征决定该概念的逻辑特征。但问题在于,许多日常概念没有核心定义。,Bibliography,http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization,http:/,en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_theory,Ronald Langacker,(,Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, vol. 1/2 1987/1991),George Lakoff,(,Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, 1987,Croft, William A. & D.A. Cruse (2004).,Cognitive Linguistics,. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.,Lakoff, George (1987).,Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind,. Chicago: Chicago University Press,Thank you!,
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