Chapter4Theself

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 4 The self: Learning about the self,自我：了解自我,1. The self is components of ones identity,（,自我是同一性的各组成部分,）,. Social identity is a self-definition that indicates just how we conceptualize and evaluate ourselves.,（,社会同一性是表明我们如何认识和评价自己的自我界定,）,2. The self is first and foremost the collection of beliefs that we hold about ourselves.,自我就是关于我们自己的信念的集合。也叫自我概念（,self-concept,）,。,Main terms,Social identity,(,社会身份,);,self-concept,(,自我概念,);,self-esteem,(,自尊心,);,self-schemas,(,自我图式,);,self-reference effect,(,自我参照效应,);,Erik Eriksons stage theory of ego development,(,埃里克森自我发展的阶段理论,);,socialization,(,社会化,);,looking-glass self,(,镜中我,);,Daryl,Bems,self-perception theory,(,自我知觉理论,);,Schachter,-Singers two-factor theory of emotion,(,情绪的两因素理论,);,social comparison,(,社会比较,);,ethnic identity,(,少数民族身份,);,bicultural competence,(,双文化胜任力,);,acculturation,(,文化适应,);,assimilation,(,同化,);,mainstream culture,(,主流文化,);,independent self,(,独立的自我,);,interdependent self,(,相互依赖的自我,).,possible selves,(,可能的自我,);,ideal self,(,理想的自我,);,ought self,(,责任自我,);,actual self,(,实际的自我,);,self-discrepancy theory,(,自我不一致理论,);,self-regulation,(,自我调节,);,working self-concept,(,激活的自我概念,);,self-representation,(,自我呈现,);,self-efficacy,(,自我效能感,);,cybernetic theory of self-regulation,(,自我调节的自动控制理论,);,public and private self-consciousness,(,公开的与私密的自我意识,);,self-verification,(,自我证明,);,self-improvement(,自我改善,);,self-enhancement,(,自我提升,);,self-handicapping,(,自我设障,).,Main contents,（主要内容）,Components of self-schema: self-concept; self-esteem,（自我图式的成分：自我概念、自尊）,How different regulations of self influence behavior,（自我的不同调节如何影响行为）,How the self-schema motivate behavior,（自我图式如何激励行为）,Social comparison theory,（社会比较理论）,Studying the self in multicultural perspective,（根据多元文化视角来研究自我）,Self-schema: an overall framework of self,（自我图式：自我的一个全面的体系）,1. A self-schema is the sum of everything a person remembers, knows, and can imagine about herself or himself.,（自我图式是一个人对自身所记忆、知晓、能够想象的所有事情的总和。）,2. Self-knowledge may be organized along dimensions. Dimensions that are important to a person are more probably schematic. Those dimensions consist of a base on which people evaluate themselves and help people to identify situations as relevant to that dimension.,（自我知识可能沿不同的方面组织，那些对一个人重要的方面更可能是结构化的，这些方面构成一个人评价自我、判断情境与自己是否相关的基础。）,3. A self-schema is a relatively stable, consistent conceptualization of self.,（自我图式是相对稳定、前后一致的自我认识。）,I. Self-concept: an organized collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about oneself,Sedikides & Skowronski(1997)从进化论的观点出发，将自我的适应功能划分为三个水平：,The self evolved as an adaptive characteristic（自我作为一种适应品质发展起来）,. The first aspect to emerge was,subjective self-awareness（主观的自我觉察）, which involves the ability of the organism to differentiate itself to some degree from its physical and social environment. The second was,objective self-awareness（客观的自我觉察）, which refers to the organisms capacity to be the object of its own attention. The third level was,symbolic self-awareness（符号的自我觉察）, which permits adults of human beings to form an abstract cognitive representation of self through language.,I. Self-concept: an organized collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about oneself,Erik Erikson(1963),提出自我发展的阶段理论,(stage theory of ego development),探讨人自我理解,(sense of self),的发展。虽然他认为同一性形成,(identity formation),是持续终生的任务，但青春期和成年早期更加重要；同一性形成标志从儿童期向成年期转变（,this time, when identity come together (,当特性联合起来的时候）, marks the transition between childhood and adulthood,）。同一性形成过程的目标是“,the ability to experience ones self as something that has continuity and sameness, and to act accordingly”,；一旦年轻人获得对自我同一性的坚定理解，就有了选择工作、规划生涯、建立亲密关系的基础。,同一性发展从儿童期开始一直持续到生命结束。,I. Self-concept,1. Sources of self-knowledge,2. Content,3. Structure,4. Many selves: Possible selves,5. Change self-concept,1. Where does self-knowledge come from?,1) Socialization,: Experiences acquired through socializing are internalized.,2) Reflected appraisal,（镜像评价）,: People perceive themselves as others perceive and respond to them.,“looking-glass self”,3)Feedback and opinions from others,:,4)Self-perception,:,5) Labeling arousal states,:,6) Environmental distinctiveness,: Self-concept is influenced by factors in the situation that make us distinctive.,7) Comparisons with self and others,:,8) Social identity,:,9) Genetic factors:,Self-perception,（自我知觉）,Daryl,Bems,self-perception theory: Inferring personal qualities from observing own behavior is a source of self-knowledge.,But,self-perception as a source of self-knowledge applies primarily to more incidental than to important aspects of the self,. Many important aspects of the self have clear internal referents in the form of enduring beliefs, attitudes, and affective preferences.,Labeling arousal states,（给唤醒状态贴标签）,Schachter,-Singers two-factor theory of emotion: The perceptions of our own emotion depend on (1) the degree of physiological arousal we have, which are ambiguous, and (2) the cognitive label we apply. To arrive at a cognitive label, we review our own behavior and the situation.,Comparisons with self and others,（自我与他人比较）,1. Some of the time when we want to evaluate ourselves on a particular dimension or quality, information is not readily available. Then we assess our personal qualities by comparing ourselves to other people. This process is termed social comparison.,2. We evaluate our current situation in terms of our past.,A caveat: Such comparisons are often biased, since it is easy to distort ones prior position on an attribute when trying to gauge progress.,Social identity,（社会身份）,Social identity: part of an individuals,self-concept which derives from his or her membership,in a social group (or groups) together with the,value and emotional significance,attached to that membership,（个人自我概念的一部分，来源于作为一个社会群体中的成员身份及与之相联系的价值和情绪意义）,.,Self-concept and social identity mutually determine and shape each other,（自我概念、社会身份相互决定、彼此塑造）,.,Ethnic identity,（少数民族身份）,:,part of an individuals self-knowledge that concerns his or her membership in a particular ethnic group.,Ethnic identity raises particular issues,（少数民族身份会产生特定的问题）,.,One is reconciling ethnic culture with mainstream culture,（一是调和与主流文化的关系）,.,The other is self-stereotyping,（另一个是自我类别化）, i.e., perceiving oneself as a member of a particular group and consequently behaving in line with this social identity.,Another is bicultural competence,（另一个是双文化能力）,.,Ethnic identity and mainstream culture,1.,根据对少数族裔文化和主流文化的认同程度可以确认四种社会身份取向：,Identification with majority group,Identification with ethnic group,Strong,Weak,Strong,Integrated,assimilated,Acculturated,Bicultural,Weak,Separated,Marginal,Ethnically identified,Ethnically embedded,Dissociated,Ethnic identity and mainstream culture,2. Different adaptive state predicts the amount of contact that individuals will have with their ethnic group and with the larger society.,3. The notion of,bicultural competence,: Some people gain competence within two cultures without losing cultural identity and without having to choose one culture over the other. They are able to successfully function in both ones culture of origin and the new culture.,4. Participation in ethnically related activities and being treated in particular ways because of ones ethnic or racial background foster a sense of ethnic identity.,I. Self-concept,1. Sources of self-knowledge,2. Content,3. Structure,4. Many selves: Possible selves,5. Change self-concept,2. The content of a persons self-concept:,Each person possesses a unique self-concept with specific content, but that the overall structure of the self-concept is the same for all individuals.,A self-concept usually concerns the following categories: interpersonal attributes; ascribed characteristics; interests and activities; existential aspects; self-determination; internalized beliefs; self-awareness; social differentiation.,I. Self-concept,1. Sources of self-knowledge,2. Content,3. Structure,4. Many selves: Possible selves,5. Change self-concept,3. Differences of self-concept in structure,（自我概念在结构上的差异）,1) Central versus peripheral self-conception,2) Clarity of self-conception,3) Isolated versus interrelated self-concept,4) Specific content areas of self-concept,5) Cultural characteristics of self-concept: Conceptions of the self vary greatly across cultures.,Culture and the self-concept,（文化和自我概念）,1. The contents and structure of self-concept are characteristic of culture: Independent self vs. interdependent self.,Independent,Interdependent,Identity is,Personal, defined by individual traits and goals,Social, defined by connections with others,What matters,Me - personal achievement my rights & liberties,We - group goals social responsibilities & relationships,Disapproves of,Conformity,Egotism,Illustrative motto,To,thine,own self be true,No one is an island,Cultures that support,Individualistic Western,Collectivistic Asian and Third World,Culture and the self-concept,2. Different construal of the self in different culture causes people possess cognition, motivation, and emotion about self that characterize culture,（不同文化下对自我的不同解读使人们拥有关于自我的不同认知、动机和情绪，它成为文化特征）,.,Different motivation for work,（不同的工作动机）,: personal achievement, personal choice; the achievement of group goals.,Different attribution inclination,（不同的归因倾向）,: the independent self emphasizes the internal factors, and the interdependent self the social environment.,Usually experienced emotions,（通常所体验的情绪）,: ego-focused emotions pride, frustration; other-focused emotions sense of being cared for.,I. Self-concept,1. Sources of self-knowledge,2. Content,3. Structure,4. Many selves: Possible selves,5. Change self-concept,4. Different self-concepts of a person,（多种个人的自我认识）,1) Possible selves,（可能的自我）,: Mental representations of what we might become, or should become, in the future.,（未来一个人可能成为什么人、应该成为什么人的心理表征。即理想自我,(ideal self),、义务自我,(ought self),）,2) Self-discrepancy theory,（自我不一致理论）,: The discrepancies between how we actually are and how we ideally want to be or think we ought to be have great impact on well-being.,3) Self-complexity,（自我的复杂性）,: It refers to the number of possible selves. Possible selves influence our motivation in several ways.,I. Self-concept,1. Sources of self-knowledge,2. Content,3. Structure,4. Many selves: Possible selves,5. Change self-concept,5. Changing the self-concept,（自我概念在什么条件下会改变）,1) Self-concept changes slowly over time,（自我概念变化很慢）,.,2) Specific events, such as feedback or experience of entering a new occupation, can bring about changes in self-concept.,（一些具体事件，例如反馈或进入一新职业的经验，能导致自我概念变化）,3) Each person has a central core self plus many different social selves that are activated by different people in different social interactions.,（每个人有一个核心自我和许多社会自我，这些社会自我在不同的社会相互作用中被不同的人激活。）,II. Self-esteem,（自尊）,1.Self-esteem,: The,self-evaluation,made by each individual; ones attitude toward oneself along a positive-negative dimension.,2. Self-esteem has impact on behavior,（自尊心对行为的影响）,.,Behaviors of high self-esteem individuals,（高自尊的人的行为）,: having clear self-concept, thinking well of themselves, setting appropriate goals, using feedback in a self-enhancing manner, coping successfully with difficult situations.,（有明确的自我概念，对自我评价很好，确立恰当的目标，用自我提升的方式使用反馈，能成功应对困难情境）,Behaviors of low self-esteem individuals,（低自尊的人的行为）,: having less clear self-concept, thinking poorly of themselves, often selecting unrealistic goals or shy away from goals altogether, being pessimistic about the future, having more adverse emotional and behavioral reactions to criticism or other kinds of negative feedback, being more vulnerable to setbacks or stress.,（自我概念不清晰、自我评价低、选择不现实的目标、或回避目标、对未来悲观、对批评和负面反馈有不利的情绪和行为反应、面对挫折和压力更脆弱）,II. Self-esteem,（自尊）,3. Explicit sense of self-esteem vs. implicit self-esteem,（明显的自尊感与不明显的自尊感）,4. Specific self-esteem vs. overall self-esteem(,具体的自尊和全面的自尊）,:,5. How a person self-evaluate influences self-esteem,（一个人怎么自我评价影响自尊心）,.,6. Factors that determine high or low self-esteem,:,The discrepancy between actual self and ideal self.,Direction of social comparison,（自我比较方向）,: upward vs. downward comparison.,Different culture emphasizes different aspects of self.,Are good or bad qualities very common or quite unusual,（好的或坏的特征是普遍的或不平常的）,?,Is thought direction toward positive or negative content?,7. Variable self-esteem,: people tend to maintain a relatively stable level of self-esteem. Variable self-esteem arouse negative emotions.,如何测量自尊心,以下项目是否适合你，请用“对”或“错”表明：,1,、我感觉我有很多好的特性,2,、我感觉我没有什么值得自豪的,3,、有时我认为自己什么都不擅长,4,、我感觉我是一个有价值的人，至少在平等的基础上,5,、总而言之，我感觉自己是个失败者,6,、总体上，我对自己感觉满意,（如果,1,、,4,、,6,回答为对，表明有较高自尊心；如果,2,、,3,、,5,回答为对表明自尊心教低）,讨论：如何提高自尊心？,III. Self-functioning,（自我功能）,: self-regulations,（自我调控）,1. The working self-concept,（工作自我概念）,: Which aspect of the self influences our thoughts and ongoing behavior depends in large part on what aspect of the self-concept is relevant to a particular situation,（与当前情境相关的自我概念内容）,. The aspect of the self-concept that is accessed for a particular situation is working self-concept.,2. Self-focusing,（聚焦自我）,: the extent to which attention is directed toward oneself,（注意力指向自我的程度）,.,How to influence self-focusing,（如何影响聚焦自我）,:,Cognitive and affective aspects of self-focusing,（聚焦自我的认知方面和情感方面）,:,Paying attention to public or to private aspects of self: Public and private forms of self-consciousness are not opposites,（注意自我的公共方面和私人方面：公共的和私人的自我意识不是对立的）。公共自我意识和私人自我意识对行为有不同影响。,Cognitive and affective aspects of self-focusing,（自我聚焦的认知和情感方面）,1) A brief period of self-focusing can improve self-awareness and insight,（短暂的自我聚焦能改善自我觉察和洞察力）,. Long-term self-focusing can simply involve replaying the same thoughts over and over rather than making progress toward self-awareness,（长期的自我聚焦只是重复同样的思维）,.,2) Cybernetic theory of self-regulation,（自我调节的自动控制理论）,:,将注意力指向自我内部时，人们会将自我与一些标准进行比较，并持续调整和比较，直到符合标准或放弃标准。,3) For depressed people, focusing away from self is helpful.,4) In stressful situations, the ability to self-focus can be part of a very useful coping strategy.,5) How self-focusing influences mood depends on the organization of positive and negative aspects,（聚焦自我对情绪的影响取决于自我积极方面和消极方面的组织）。,.,III. Self-functioning: self-regulations,3. Self-monitoring,（自我监控）,: the relative tendency of individuals to regulate their behavior on the basis of external events or on the basis of internal factors,（个体管理自己的行为是基于外部事件还是内部因素的相对程度）,.,Low self-monitors are consistent across situations, whereas high self-monitors change in response to situational changes,（低自我监控的人在不同情境下行为保持一致，高自我监控的人会根据情境变化改变行为）,.,Behavioral differences of high and low self-monitors,（高低自我监控在行为上的差异）,: The high respond to image-based ads, and the low to quality-based ads. High self-monitors choose companions on the basis of external qualities, whereas the low choose on the basis of how much they like the other person, etc.,Extremely high or low self-monitors are more neurotic and less well adjusted than those falling in the middle of this dimension,.,III. Self-functioning: self-regulations,4. Perceived self-control,（理解的自我控制）,: Two concepts point to the significance of perceived self-control,Self-efficacy,（自我效能感）,: a persons evaluation of his or her ability or competency to perform a task, reach a goal, or overcome an obstacle,（一个人关于自己履行一个任务、达到一个目标或克服一个障碍的能力或胜任力的自我评价）,. (Albert,Bandura,),1) Self-efficacy varies across different kinds of activity.,2) Performance in both physical and academic tasks is enhanced by feelings of self-efficacy.,3) Social self-efficacy influences interpersonal skills.,4) Methods to increase the feelings of efficacy,（提高自我效能感的方法）,: providing knowledge of specific area; arousing positive feelings; giving positive feedback; acquiring hard-won achievement; therapy.,III. Self-functioning: self-regulations,Locus of control,（控制点）,: The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts and actions or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces. (Julian,Rotter,),(,应用：通过改变归因方式,来训练销售人员、社会工作,中给案主赋权）,Helpless dogs and depressed,people suffer paralysis of the will,passive resignation, even,motionless apathy.,Application of self-efficacy and locus of control:,Learned helplessness,: The hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events.,Uncontrollable,bad,events,Perceived,lack of,control,Learned,helplessness,Social Work: an empowering profession,如何使自我更有力量？,V. Motivation related with self,（与自我相关的动机）,1. The need for an accurate self-concept(,准确的自我概念的需要）,: A fairly accurate assessment of our abilities help us predict our future. When there are no factors that induce people to save face or strive to succeed, and we are uncertain about our qualities, we tend to pick tasks that will be most informative about self.,2. The need for a consistent self-concept,（一致的自我概念的需要）,: People believe their intrinsic qualities remain relatively stable over time, and they tend to seek out and interpret situations that confirm their already-existing self-conceptions. This process is termed,self-verification,（自我证实）,.,When interacting with others, people use behavioral strategies that confirm self-conception,（当与他人相互作用时，人们使用行为策略来支持自我概念）,.,V. Motivation related with self,（与自我相关的动机）,3. Self-improvement,: People have the desire to improve themselves. Clear possible selves and comparing the self with someone who possesses a desired skill or attributes enable a person to improve.,4. self-enhancement,（自我夸大）,:,People have the need to feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem.,1) Ways to satisfy self-enhancement needs,（满足自我夸大需要的方法）,:,Positive illusions,（积极的错觉）,: People see themselves more positively than is true; believe they have more control over the events around them than is actually the case; are unrealistically optimistic about the future.,Self-serving attribution,（自我服务归因）,:,Forgetting negative information,（忘记负面信息）,; developing unique definition of selfs talent and shortcomings,（发展起关于自我才能和缺点的独特定义）, etc.,V. Motivation related with self,（与自我相关的动机）,4. self-enhancement:,2) When are people more accurate in self-appraisals,（什么时候人们不会自我夸大）,?,Being about to receive feedback from others, people are reasonably realistic, even pessimistic about the news they will get.,Being in the process of deciding between alternative courses of action or setting goals.,Being low in self-esteem or moderately depressed,Being modest in self-appraisals when people expect that others will have accurate information about their abilities, when their self-descriptions can be easily verified, or when they expect to receive self-relevant feedback.,V. Motivation related with self,（与自我相关的动机）,4. self-enhancement:,3) Why do people need self-enhance,（人们为什么会自我夸大）,?,Self-enhancing positive illusions are adaptive.,Self-affirmation: People will cope with specific threats to their self-worth by affirming unrelated aspects of themselves.,Terror management theory: High self-esteem help people manage the terror of mortality by reaffirming their value and importance.,Self-evaluation maintenance model: Positive impression depends on how we evaluate other peoples performance around us.,4) The intensity of self-enhancement need varies across cultures and individuals,（自我夸大的强度在不同文化和个体之间强度不同）,.,V. Motivation related with self,（与自我相关的动机）,5. Need for making a good impression,（留下好印象的需要）,Use self-presentation as a tactic to structure the interaction so that we manage our impression on others.,1),Self-presentation influences self-knowledge, so it helps understand ourselves,.,2),In familiar situations, self-presentation is automatic; usually, self-presentation is deliberate,.,3),Tactics for self-presenting,: conforming to the norms of the social situation; matching the behavior of other people; self-promotion and ingratiation; being modest after