3 第二语言习得概论

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,第二语言习得概论,An,Outline of Second Language Acquisition Research,Five hypotheses,about second language acquisition,1.The acquisition-learning distinction,2.The input hypothesis,3.The monitor hypothesis,4.The affective Filter hypothesis,5.The natural order hypothesis,1)Acquisition vs.,Learning,The American SLA scholar Stephen,Kr,ashen makes the distinction between acquisition and learning,.,Krashen holds that language acquisition is a subconscious process to acquire a language in natural settings, while language learning is a conscious process to obtain a language in school settings.,Children,obtain their mother tongue not through conscious learning, but the second language, though it can be,acquired,in appropriate linguistic context, is usually obtained in non-natural environment through formal instruction and conscious learning.,2. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS,How do we move from stage i,where,i,represents,current competence,to i + 1,the next level,in,second language acquisition?,The input hypothesis makes the,following claim:,a necessary (but,not sufficient) condition to move,from stage i to stage,i + 1,is that the acquirer understand input that contains i + 1, where ,understand, means that the acquirer is,focussed on the meaning,and not the form of the message.,We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is ,a little beyond, where we are now.,The answer to this apparent paradox is that we use more than our linguistic competence to help us understand. We also use,context, our knowledge of the world, our extra-linguistic information,to help us understand language directed at us.,1.Context Clue 1:,definition,Sometimes a writer knows that a word is unfamiliar or strange to many readers. To make the word easier to understand, the writer may include a definition of the word in a sentence.,A. All other birthdays are called,sing il,( born day). The sixty-first birthday is called,huan gup,(beginning of new life.),B. The harbor is protected by a,jetty,-a wall built out into the water.,C. Jane is,indecisive, that is ,she cant make up her mind.,Context Clue 2:,Restatement,More often, you may find a restatement, which tells you almost as much as a definition.,A. He had a,wan,look. He was so pale and weak that we thought he was ill.,B. I am a,resolute,man. Once I set up a goal, I wont give it up easily.,More often than not, the meaning of many words can be readily guessed if you use your own experience or general knowledge of the subject.,A. The door was so low that I hit my head on the,lintel,.,Context Clue 3:,General knowledge,Context Clue 4:,Related information,Sometimes you can make an intelligent guess of the meaning of some new words or expressions if you put together related information from,the surrounding text,.,A. She went to school for 12 years and she,cant write,a sentence?” Timken said. “They made an,illiterate,out of my daughter!”,Context Clue 5:,Examples,Examples can also give you some clues or hints to the meanings of unfamiliar words.,A. Select any of these,periodicals,: Time magazine, Newsweek, Readers digest, etc.,B. She is studying,glaucoma,and other diseases of the eye.,Context Clue 6:,Comparison,When we compare things, we see how they are like each other. So comparisons in writing can give you clues to the,meanings of unfamiliar words.,A. The snow was falling. Big,flakes,drifted with the wind like feathers.,B. The hot-air balloon took off. It was as,buoyant,in the air as a cork（软木塞） in water.,Context Clue 7:,Contrast,The use a contrast can give you a hint to the meaning of an unfamiliar word.,A. Jane was talking,with others while,John remained,reticent,all the time.,B. Most of us agreed; however, Bill,dissented,.,C. Peter was not,frugal,since he spent money so freely.,The input hypothesis says the opposite. It says we acquire by,going for meaning first, and as a result, we acquire structure!,We may thus state parts (1) and (2) of the input hypothesis as follows:,(1) The,input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not learning.,(2) We acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond our current level of competence,(i +,1,).,This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information.,Conscious learning is availab,l,e only as a Monitor,which can alter the output of the acquired system before or after the utterance is actually spoken or written. It is the acquired system which initiates normal, fluent speech utterances.,3.The monitor hypothesis,Acquired,competence,Learned competence,(the monitor),Output,Monitor can,alter the output,of the acquired system before or after the utterance is actually spoken or written. It is the acquired system which initiates normal, fluent speech utterances.,The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning, play only a limited role in second language performance. Second language performers can use,conscious rules,only when three conditions are met,.,(i),Time.,In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a second language performer needs to have,sufficient time,. For most people,normal conversation does,not allow enough,time to think about and,use rules.,(ii),Focus on form.,To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough. The performer must also be focussed on form, or,thinking about correctness,.,Even when we have time, we may be so involved in,what,we are saying,that we do not attend,to,how,we are saying,it.,(iii),Know the rule.,This may be a,very formidable,难以克服的requirement. Linguistics has taught us that the structure of language is extremely complex, and they claim to have described only a fragment of the best known languages.,All the rules of English,Subset of English described by formal linguists,Applied linguists knowledge,Best teachers knowledge,Rules taught,Rules actually learned by students,Rules,used,in performance,(i),Monitor Over-users.,These are people who attempt to,Monitor all the time, performers who are constantly checking their output with their conscious knowledge of the second language. As a result, such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in the middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency.,(ii),Monitor under-users,.,These are performers who have not learned, or if they have learned, prefer,not to use their conscious knowledge, even when conditions allow it.,Under-users are typically,uninfluenced by error correction, can self-correct only by using a feel for correctness (e.g. it sounds right), and rely completely on the acquired system.,(iii),The optimal Monitor user.,Our pedagogical goal is to produce optimal users, performers who,use the Monitor when it is appropriate,and when it does,not interfere with communication,.,5 THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS,The Affective Filter hypothesis states how,affective factors,relate to the second language acquisition process.,(1),Motivation.,Performers with,high motivation,generally do better in second language acquisition (usually, but not always,).,(2),Self-confidence.,Performers with,self-confidence and a good self-image,tend to do better in second language acquisition.,(3),Anxiety.,Low anxiety,appears to be conducive to second language acquisition, whether measured as personal or classroom anxiety.,Input,Language Acquisition Device,Acquired competence,Filter,The “affective filter” acts to,prevent input,from being used for language acquisition. Acquirers with optimal attitudes are hypothesized to have low affective filters.Classrooms that encourage low filters are those that promote low anxiety among students, that keep students “off the defensive.”,5. The Natural Order hypothesis,Acquirers of a given language tend to acquire certain grammatical structures early, and others later. In other words, the,acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order,.,-Ing (progressive),Plural,Copular ( “to be”),Auxiliary (progressive, as in “he is going”),Article(a, the),Irregular Past,Regular Past,III Singular -s,Possessive -s,Other Theories about Language Learning,The critical period,for language acquisition,The critical period hypothesis, advanced by neurobiologist Eric Lenneberg, refers to a period in one,s,life extending from about,age two to puberty,青春期, during which the human brain is,most ready to acquire,a particular language without formal classroom instruction.,The critical period for first language acquisition coincides with the period of,brain lateralization,偏侧性,.,Brain lateralization is the,localization,of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. Lateralization process is gradual and maturational. It seems to be human-specific.,Left hemisphere,Right hemisphere,language and speech perception of,nonlinguistic sounds,analytic reasoning holistic reasoning,temporal ordering visual and spatial skills,Left hemisphere,Right hemisphere,reading and writing recognition of patterns,calculation recognition of musical,melodies,associative thought,Caretaker speech,is a,modified speech,usually for communication,with children,. Children with little or no exposure to caretaker speech do not necessarily acquire their mother tongues more slowly than children with much exposure to caretaker speech.,Contrastive,Analysis,is usually the analysis of,similarities and differences,between the,mother tongue and the target language,to predict the main causes of the difficulties in the target language learning so that measures can be taken to overcome these difficulties.,4. 4 Inter,-,language and f,o,ss,ili,za,ti,on,Interlan,g,u,age is,a variety,formed in the transition of learners linguistic forms from their mother tongue to the target language. It is,different from the mother tongue and the target language,as well. It is the result of the learners use of their creatively-constructed linguistic rules to communicate in the process of second language learning. Therefore, it is systematic.,Fossilization,occurs when learners,linguistic forms stop approximating the target system,and learners, therefore, fail to achieve native-like competence in the target language,.,Learner Factors,The,optimum age,for second language acquisition,Although there is a critical period in language learning, it does not mean the younger the learner is, the better he is at learning a second language. The optimum age for,SLA,is,early teenage,. The cognitive abilities of the early teenagers have been considerably developed, but their brains are still plastic enough, because their brain lateralization has not been completed.,Motivation,Motivation can be divided into instrumental motivation and integrative motivation.,Instrumental motivation,occurs when SL learners learn a second language,as an instrument,for, say, obtaining a better job.,Integrative motivation,is social, which occurs when SL learners learn a second language in order to,integrate themselves into the target language culture,or become members of the target language community.,Acculturation,Acculturation is the process of SL learners,adapting to the target language culture.,Personality,Learners personalities can be divided into,extrovert,personality and,introvert,personality. One hypothesis is that learners with the,outgoing personality get more opportunities,to interact with the target language speakers and have more access to the linguistic input and more chances to practise, therefore, they are more likely to succeed in second language acquisition than the learners with introvert personality.,L1 acquisition: It is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their,native,language,or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. (P268),Acquisition-,naturally,in communicative situations,Learning-a,conscious,process,Relevant terms,The differences between learning and acquisition:,language,acquisition,language learning,In communicative settings,Subconscious process,Acquired competence,Implicit knowledge,Procedural knowledge,In schools,Conscious process,Knowledge of rules,Explicit knowledge,Declarative knowledge,The behaviorist,approach,Background: a,psychological,theory of learning ( 1940s and 1950s),Its best-know advocator was B.F.,Skinner,.,The behaviorist view:,1. There is,nothing,linguistic in the,mind,of the newborn baby.,2. Language learning is the result of,imitation, practice, feedback on success, and,habit formation,.,3. The quality and quantity of the language which the child,hears, as well as the consistency of the,reinforcement,offered by others in the environment, should have an effect on the childs success in the language learning.,e.g.(Peter is playing with a dump truck while two adults, John and Cathy , look on),Peter: Get more.,Cathy: Youre gonna put more wheels in the dump truck?,Peter: Dump truck fell down. Dump truck.,e.g.( HeiHei :2- year- old American ,Lance: his daddy , they are watching “Discoveries”),H: Whats that daddy?,L: Its Jupiter.,H: Jupiter, Jupiter, Its Jupiter ,daddy.,L: Yes.,Criticism:,1. Imitation and practice alone cant explain some of the forms,created,by the children.,2. It cant account for the normal language development of children who,rarely imitate,and practice.,3. It cant explain the more,complex,grammatical structures of the language.,The,innateness,approach,Background: The behaviorist hypothesis was challenged from the 1960s , especially under the influence of,Noam Chomskys,theories and,cognitive psychology,.,The innateness hypothesis:,1.,Mind,is,not a blank,.,2. Children are,biologically programmed,for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.,3. Chomsky originally referred to this special ability as,LAD,and later as,UG, which is considered to consist of a set of,principles,which are common to all languages. E.g. Children learn to walk and doesnt have to be taught.,4.,Natural language,serves as a,trigger,to,activate,the device. Once it is activated, the child is able to discover the structure of the language.,5. This approach also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to,physiological maturation,.,Here is some of the,evidence,which have been used to support Chomskys innatist position:,1. Children all over the world go through,the same stages,in language acquisition.,2. Children can learn,any language equally well,as long as they are in the right linguistic environment.,3. Virtually,all children successfully learn,their native language,at a time in life,when they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated.,The interaction,approach,The interaction position:,1. Language develops as a result of the complex interplay between,the child and the environment,in which the child develops.,2. Children are born with a,potentiality,for organizing experiences and comprehending symbols.,This potentiality cant be brought into full operation unless it,interacts with the environment.,e.g. child-directed speech,3. Interactionists are inclined to see language acquisition as,similar to and,influenced by,the acquisition of,other kinds of skill,and knowledge, rather than as something which is largely independent of the childs experience and cognitive development.,In conclusion, each of the theories may help to explain a different aspect of childrens language development. And the nature of language acquisition is still an,open question,.,1. Behaviorism explains the acquisition of,simple grammar,.,2. Innatism seems plausible in explaining the acquisition of,complex grammar,.,3. Interactionism explains how children learn to,use,language.,Early Stages,Age,Characteristics,Example,Babbling,310 months,Velar软腭音consonants,Vowels,fricatives,nasals,Syllable-type sounds,k g,a:n,ba, ma,Holophrastic,(one-word),以一个字显示整句意思的,1218 months,(1-1.5 years old),simple,complex idea,Milk! Sheep! Truck!,Two-word,1820 months,(1.52 years old),Combinations tied to the context,Baby chair,Early Stages,Age,Characteristics,Example,Telegraphic speech,2436 months,(23 years old),Telegraphic sentence,structures of lexical,rather than functional or grammatical morphemes,I want ball.,Cat drink.,Car going?,Daddy go?,Later multiword stage,36+ months,Grammatical or functional structures emerge,I want a ball.,My cat is drinking milk.,History of SLA studies:1940s1970s,),Contrastive analysis,(comparison of L1 & L2),Error analysis,(analysis of learner errors),Interlanguage,(analysis of learner language),Contrastive analysis,: researchers,systematically,compare the first language and the target language.,Lado,was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of languages.,Lado claimed that ,those elements which are similar to,the learners,native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult,.,Contrastive Analysis and SLA,explain why some features of a target language were,more difficult,to acquire than others,behaviourist-habit formation,the,difficulty,in mastering certain structures in a second language (L2) depended on the,difference,between the learners mother language (L1) and the language they were trying to learn,The hypothesis:,1) L2,differs,from L1, learner makes,errors,2) Teachers can,predict areas,in which L2 learners will have difficulties and those where they wont, which is useful for preparing teaching materials.,Transfer,:,“Transfer is influence that the learners,L1 exerts on the acquisition of an L2,”.,Ellis (1997: 51),Positive transfer,(facilitation) : language learning consists mostly of the projection of the system of the first language to the system of the second language. Thus, language learning will be,successfu,l when the two languages happen to be,similar,. (Lado),Negative transfer,(interference): Language learning will be,unsuccessful,when the second language happens to be very,different,. Lado (1957),L1 influence on L2: Pronunciation,My wife is thirty.,L1 influence on L2: Syntax,I very much like you.,L1 influence on L2: Semantics or pragmatics (Chinglish),His skin was smiling, but not his flesh.,People Mountain People Sea.,If you dont good good study, Ill give you some color to see see.,Criticism of CA,It predicted some difficulties that were,not observed,in L2 learners.,It,failed,to predict some difficulties that were,observed,in L2 learners.,It was more successful in,phonology,than in other areas of language, and,declined,in the 1970s as learning difficulties began to be explained by other factors.,Error Analysis,(EA, 1960s),Error Analysis: It was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues.In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the,types and causes,of language errors. It is a,reaction,against,CA,(NL-TL comparison), with an emphasis on the,learner,.,It views errors as evidence of,IL, a rule-governed system, not as something of pedagogical interest only.,Mistakes versus errors:,Mistake:,Incorrect forms caused by,lack of attention,fatigue, carelessness, or some other performance. e.g. know the rules, carelessly make the mistake “I goed home yesterday.”,Errors: Incorrect forms in speech and writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to,his,incomplete knowledge,of the rules of the target language. e.g.,我不去,I not go.,The,purposes,of error analysis:,(i)