语言学简明教程Chapter_5

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,1,Chapter 5 Grammar: Clause,5.1 Introduction,Clause (,小句,/,子句,),a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.,2,Examples:,1) I hurried home.,( a sentence, also a clause,a simple sentence,),3),Because,I was late,they went without me.,subordinate clause (,从属句,),main clause(,独立句,主句,),complex sentence,2) John likes linguistics,but,Mary is interested in history.,(,coordinate sentence/compound sentence,),coordinating conjunction,subordinator,3,( More: .is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses,and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the,study of grammar, which includes all areas of language,aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and,semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are,constructed. ),Syntax (,句法,),a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.,4,The boy kicked the ball angrily., Boy the ball kicked angrily., The girl caught the ball angrily., The flower smiles happily.,Which are correct and which are not, and why?,5.2 Word Classes and Word Order,Determiner + noun + verb + determiner+ noun + adv,The dog ate the bone noisily.,The boy kicked the ball angrily.,5,Syntactic category(,句法范畴）,:,a category of words having the same grammatical properties,Phrase: expansion of words.,E.g.,the new,book,;,run,fast,“ head words”,Clause (go to the book),Positional relation or word order,refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of language, the sentence will be ungrammatical or nonsensical.,(The tall boy has kicked the ball with his right foot angrily. ),Relation of substitutability,refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence structures.,6,Specifier X Complement,Head,(Phrase elements),XP,The XP rule,Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown,in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P, which refer to,nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions.,7,X,Theory (X-bar Theory),A girl with brown hair,X P,(Specifier) X,X,X (complement),X (head) complement,Specifier( the),X P (Phrase level),X,a girl with brown hair,8,Specifiers,- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qualifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.,9,Complements,- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head,e.g.,a story about a sentimental girl;,a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “,I believed that she was innocent.,I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.”,That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.,10,IC,analysis (Immediate Constituents Analysis),“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that,cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of,pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its,constituent elements without even knowing what they,really are . What remain of the first cut are called,“immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final,cut are called “ultimate constituents”.,For example, “John left yesterday” can be thus segmented: “John| left yesterday”.,We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|),and they are “John” and “left yesterday”.,Further split(|) this sentence generates three “ultimate constituents”: “John”, “left ” and “yesterday”.,How to analyze a sentence?,11,The,|,new,|,product,|,has,|,passed,|,tests,|,with,|,flying,|,colors.,The new product has passed tests with flying colors.,12,The,new,product,has,passed,tests,with,flying,colors,.,Tree Diagram,The,new,product,has,passed,tests,with,flying,colors,.,13,Labeled Tree Diagram,The,new,product,has,passed,tests,with,flying,colors,.,Det adj N aux. V N Prep adj N,NP,NP,VP,VP,NP,PP,Pred.,Sentence,14,Labeled Tree Diagram,S,NP,VP,NP,Det N V Det N,A boy kicked the ball.,15,Time for Break,16,Seven Clause Patterns in English,SV,They are singing.,SVC,The job is difficult.,SVA,He was in the car.,SVO,Lily is playing chess.,SVOO,I will send you the plan.,SVOC,The boss considers his secretary excellent.,SVOA,I put the plate away.,5.3 Clause Types,17,5.4 Grammatical Categories,Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech),Grammatical categories:,word class: noun, verb, adjective etc.,syntactic categories: word, phrase and clause,functional categories: subject, object and so on.,18,Word-level categories (word class),Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.,Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.,19,Traditionally, grammatical category refers to the above aspects, but now it generally refers to certain properties of word classes represented by inflectional endings. In English, we have the following grammar categories:,Number,: noun( pl./ singular), pronoun, verb,Tense,: verb,Case,: pronoun, adjective,Gender,: pronoun, adjective,Aspect,: verb,Voice,: verb,Mood,: verb,20,Two categories of “half-clause”:,1. Non-finite clause (logically S & P),2. Verbless clause (logically SVA & SVC),Its difficult,for me to run fast,.,While,in prison, he wrote a novel.,Whether,right or wrong, you should admit it.,5.5 Half-clauses,Clause: a complete unit,Half clause: not complete unit,21,5.6 Semantic Roles of Clause Elements,（,小句成分的语义角色）,Semantic Roles of noun phrases:,The boy,kicked,the ball.,agent patient,The ball,is kicked. (patient),The boy,has a ball. (beneficiary or recipient),The boy,likes the ball. (experiencer),22,Exercise,Draw a labeled tree diagram of the structure in the sentences.,1. The penguin swallowed the fish.,2. John gave Mary the book.,