资源描述
,Chapter 20: Output, the Interest Rate, and the Exchange Rate,Click to edit Master title style,*,Output, the Interest Rate,and the Exchange Rate,The model developed in this chapter is an extension of the open economy IS-LM model, known as the,Mundell-Fleming model,.,The main questions we try to solve are:,What determines the exchange rate?,How can policy makers affect exchange rates?,1,Equilibrium in the Goods Market,Equilibrium in the goods market can be described by the following equations:,20-1,2,Equilibrium in the Goods Market,Consumption,C,depends positively on disposable income,Y-T,.,Investment,I,depends positively on output,Y,and negatively on the real interest rate,r,.,Government spending G is taken as given.,The quantity of imports IM depends positively on both output Y and the real exchange rate .,Exports X depend positively on foreign output Y* and negatively on the real exchange rate .,3,Equilibrium in the Goods Market,The main implication of this equation is that both the real interest rate and the real exchange rate affect demand and, in turn, equilibrium output:,An increase in the real interest rate leads to a decrease in investment spending, and to a decrease in the demand for domestic goods.,An increase in the real exchange rate leads to a shift in demand toward foreign goods, and to a decrease,in net exports.,4,Equilibrium in the Goods Market,In this chapter we make two simplifications:,Both the domestic and the foreign price levels are given; thus, the nominal and the real exchange rate move together:,There is no inflation, neither actual nor expected.,Then, the equilibrium condition becomes:,5,Equilibrium in Financial markets,20-2,Now that we look at a financially open economy, we must also take into account the fact that people have a choice between domestic bonds and foreign bonds.,6,Money Versus Bonds,We wrote the condition that the supply of money be equal to the demand for money as:,We can use this equation to think about the determination of the nominal interest rate in an open economy.,7,Domestic Bonds Versus Foreign Bonds,What combination of domestic and foreign bonds should financial investors choose in order to maximize expected returns?,The left side gives the return, in terms of domestic currency. The right side gives the expected return, also in terms of domestic currency. In equilibrium, the two expected returns must be equal.,8,Domestic Bonds Versus Foreign Bonds,If the expected future exchange rate is given, then:,The current exchange rate is,:,9,Domestic Bonds Versus Foreign Bonds,An increase in the U.S. interest rate, say, after a monetary contraction, will cause the U.S. interest rate to increase, and the demand for U.S. bonds to rise. As investors switch from foreign currency to dollars, the dollar appreciates.,The more the dollar appreciates, the more investors expect it to depreciate in the future.,The initial dollar appreciation must be such that the expected future depreciation compensates for the increase in the U.S. interest rate. When this is the case, investors are again indifferent and equilibrium prevails.,10,Domestic Bonds Versus Foreign Bonds,The Relation Between the Interest Rate and the Exchange Rate Implied by Interest Parity,A higher domestic interest rate leads to a higher exchange rate an appreciation.,Figure 20 - 1,11,Putting Goods andFinancial Markets Together,Goods-market equilibrium implies that output depends, among other factors, on the interest rate and the exchange rate.,20-3,12,Putting Goods andFinancial Markets Together,The interest rate is determined by the equality of money supply and money demand:,The interest-parity condition implies a negative relation between the domestic interest rate and the exchange rate:,13,Putting Goods andFinancial Markets Together,The open-economy versions of the,IS,and,LM,relations are:,Changes in the interest rate affect the economy directly through investment,indirectly through the exchange rate.,14,Putting Goods andFinancial Markets Together,The IS-LM Model in the Open Economy,An increase in the interest rate reduces output both directly and indirectly (through the exchange rate). The IS curve is downward sloping. Given the real money stock, an increase in output increases the interest rate: The LM curve is upward sloping.,Figure 20 - 2,15,The Effects of Policyin an Open Economy,The Effects of an Increase in Government Spending,An increase in government spending leads to an increase in output, an increase in the interest rate, and an appreciation.,The increase in government spending shifts the,IS,curve to the right. It shifts neither the,LM,curve nor the interest-parity curve.,20-4,Figure 20 - 3,16,The Effects of Policyin an Open Economy,Can we tell what happens to the various components of demand for money when the government increases spending:,Consumption and government spending both go up.,The effect of government spending on investment was ambiguous in the closed economy, it remains ambiguous in the open economy.,Both the increase in output and the appreciation combine to decrease net exports.,17,The Effects of Monetary Policyin an Open Economy,The Effects of a Monetary Contraction,A monetary contraction leads to a decrease in output, an increase in the interest rate, and an appreciation.,A monetary contraction shifts the,LM,curve up. It shifts neither the,IS,curve nor the interest-parity curve.,Figure 20 - 4,18,Table 1,The Emergence of Large U.S. Budget Deficits, 1980-1984,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,Spending,22.0,22.8,24.0,25.0,23.7,Revenues,20.2,20.8,20.5,19.4,19.2,Personal taxes,9.4,9.6,9.9,8.8,8.2,Corporate taxes,2.6,2.3,1.6,1.6,2.0,Budget surplus (-:deficit),1.8,2.0,3.5,5.6,4.5,Numbers are for fiscal years, which start in October of the previous calendar year. All numbers are expressed as a percentage of GDP.,Monetary Contraction, and Fiscal Expansion: The United States in the Early 1980s,19,Supply siders,a group of economists who argued that a cut in tax rates would boost economic activity.,High output growth and dollar appreciation during the early 1980s resulted in an increase in the trade deficit. A higher trade deficit, combined with a large budget deficit, became know as the,twin deficits,of the 1980s.,Monetary Contraction, and Fiscal Expansion: The United States in the Early 1980s,20,Table 2,Major U.S. Macroeconomic Variables, 1980-1984,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,GDP Growth (%),0.5,1.8,2.2,3.9,6.2,Unemployment rate (%),7.1,7.6,9.7,9.6,7.5,Inflation (CPI) (%),12.5,8.9,3.8,3.8,3.9,Interest rate (nominal) (%),11.5,14.0,10.6,8.6,9.6,(real) (%),2.5,4.9,6.0,5.1,5.9,Real exchange rate,85,101,111,117,129,Trade surplus (,: deficit) (% of GDP),-0.5,-0.4,-0.6,-1.5,-2.7,Inflation: Rate of change of the CPI. The nominal interest rate is the three-month T-bill rate. The real interest rate is equal to the nominal rate minus the forecast of inflation by DRI, a private forecasting firm. The real exchange rate is the trade-weighted real exchange rate, normalized so that 1973 = 100,Monetary Contraction, and Fiscal Expansion: The United States in the Early 1980s,21,Fixed Exchange Rates,Central banks act under implicit and explicit exchange-rate targets and use monetary policy to achieve those targets.,20-5,22,Pegs, Crawling Pegs, Bonds, the EMS, and the Euro,Some countries operate under,fixed exchange rates,. These countries maintain a fixed exchange rate in terms of some foreign currency. Some,peg,their currency to the dollar.,Some countries operate under a,crawling peg,. These countries typically have inflation rates that exceed the U.S. inflation rate.,23,Pegs, Crawling Pegs, Bonds, the EMS, and the Euro,Some countries maintain their bilateral exchange rates within some bands. The most prominent example is the European Monetary System (EMS). Under the EMS rules, member countries agreed to maintain their exchange rate vis-vis the other currencies in the system within narrow limits or bands around a central parity.,Some countries moved further, agreeing to adopt a common currency, the Euro, in effect, adopting a “fixed exchange rate.,24,Pegging the Exchange Rate,and Monetary Control,The interest parity condition is:,Pegging the exchange rate turns the interest parity relation into:,25,Pegging the Exchange Rate,and Monetary Control,Increases in the domestic demand for money must be matched by increases in the supply of money in order to maintain the interest rate constant, so that the following condition holds:,In words:,Under a fixed exchange rate and perfect capital mobility, the domestic interest rate must be equal to the foreign interest rate.,26,Fiscal Policy UnderFixed Exchange Rates,The Effects of a Fiscal Expansion Under Fixed Exchange Rates,Under flexible exchange rates, a fiscal expansion increases output, from Y,A,to Y,B,. Under fixed exchange rates, output increases from Y,A,to Y,C,.,The central bank must accommodate the resulting increase in the demand for money.,Figure 20 - 5,27,Fiscal Policy UnderFixed Exchange Rates,There are a number of reasons why countries choosing to fix its interest rate appears to be a bad idea:,By fixing the exchange rate, a country gives up a powerful tool for correcting trade imbalances or changing the level of economic activity.,By committing to a particular exchange rate, a country also gives up control of its interest rate, and they must match movements in the foreign interest rate risking unwanted effects on its own activity.,28,Fiscal Policy UnderFixed Exchange Rates,There are a number of reasons why countries choosing to fix its interest rate appears to be a bad idea:,Although the country retains control of fiscal policy, one policy instrument is not enough. A country that wants to decrease its budget deficit cannot, under fixed exchange rates, use monetary policy to offset the,contractionary,effect of its fiscal policy on output.,29,German Unification, Interest Rates, and the EMS,Table 1,German Unification, Interest Rates, and Output Growth: Germany, France, and Belgium, 1990-1992,Nominal Interest Rates (%),Inflation (%),1990,1991,1992,1990,1991,1992,Germany,8.5,9.2,9.5,2.7,3.7,4.7,France,10.3,9.6,10.3,2.9,3.0,2.4,Belgium,9.6,9.4,9.4,2.9,2.7,2.4,Real Interest Rates (%),GDP Growth (%),1990,1991,1992,1990,1991,1992,Germany,5.7,5.5,4.8,5.7,4.5,2.1,France,7.4,6.6,7.9,2.5,0.7,1.4,Belgium,6.7,6.7,7.0,3.3,2.1,0.8,The nominal interest rate is the short-term nominal interest rate. The real interest rate is the realized real interest rate over the year that is, the nominal interest rate minus actual inflation over the year. All rates are annual.,30,Key Terms,Mundell-Fleming model,supply,siders,twin deficits,peg,crawling peg,European Monetary System (EMS),bands,central parity,Euro,31,
展开阅读全文