Chapter 3 morphology

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 3 Morphology,Morphology (,形态学,)refers to the study of the,internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed,. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology,Open class word and closed class word,（开放词类,VS,封闭词类）,Open class words-content/lexical words of a language to which we can regularly,add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g.,beatnik(a,member of the Beat Generation,美国二战后出生的,服饰奇特,行为乖僻的一代,), hacker, email, internet,“,做秀，时装秀,”,in Chinese.,Closed class words-grammatical / functional words,new members are not regularly added,. such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns.,What is a lexeme?,A lexeme,（词位）,is the,smallest unit,in the,meaning system,of a language that can be,distinguished,from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.,E.g. the word,“,write,”,is the lexeme of,“,write, writes, wrote, writing,and,written.,”,Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning,-,Words are composed of morphemes.,-A morpheme (,语素,) is,the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that,cannot,be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.,-E.g. the word,“,boxes,”,has two morphemes:,“,box,”,and,“,es,”,neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don,t want to sacrifice its meaning.,1-morpheme boy, desire,2-morpheme,boy+ish,desir(e)+ble,3-morpheme,boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity,4-morpheme,gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity,5-morpheme,un+gentle+man+li+ness,6-morpheme,anti+dis+establish+ment+arian+ism,Words may consist of one or more morphemes.,What is a word?,A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.,1.Stability,Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy.,Take the word,chairman,for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as *,manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.,2.Relative,uninterruptibility,By,uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word.,Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word,disappointment,:,dis,+ appoint +,ment,. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: *,dis,appoint,ment,.,3.A minimum free form,This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as,“,the maximum free form,”,and word,“,the minimum free form,”,the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.,Affix,An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.,Prefix - morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.,un-,dis,-, anti-,ir,-, etc.,Suffix - morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.,-,ful, -,er, -,ish, -,ness, -able, -,tive, -,tion, etc.,Prefixation,：,Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.,1),表示否定,negative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a,- etc.2),（相反或剥夺）,reversative,or privative prefixes: un-, de-,dis,- etc.3),表示贬义,pejorative prefixes:,mis,-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4),表示程度,degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.,5),表示方向、态度,orientation & attitude prefixes: counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.6)locative prefixes: super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7),表示时间、次序,time and order prefixes: fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8),表示数量,number prefixes:,uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly,- etc.9),混杂,miscellaneous prefixes,：,auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-,Prefixation,Suffixation: Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.,1)noun suffixes,2)adjective suffixes,3)Adverb suffixes,4)verb suffixes,Free morpheme & bound morpheme,Free morpheme-is one that may,constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as,bed, tree, sing, dance,etc.,Bound morpheme-is one that may,appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as,“,-s,”,in,“,dogs,”,“,al,”,in,“,national,”,“,dis,-,”,in,“,disclose,”,“,ed,”,in,“,recorded,”, etc.,Allomorph,（语素变体）,Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as,“,dog, bark,cat,”,etc,.,In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:,map-map,s,s dog-dog,s,z watch-watches ,iz,mouse-m,i,ce ,ai, ox-ox,en,n,tooth-t,ee,th sheep-sh,ee,p,Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.,So,allomorph is defined as any of the different forms of a morpheme.,Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme,Derivational morphemes-,- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words,e.g. modern-modernize, length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.,Other derivational morphemes do not change grammatical class, as in,inter + collegiate macro + economics,tele,+ commute multi + media,Inflectional morphemes-,- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on;,they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.,a) number: table,s,apple,s,car,s,b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked,c) case: John/John,s,Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme,Distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes,(1)Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g.,toys, walks, John,s,etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word.,In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g.,cite, citation,etc.,(2)Inflectional affixes dont change the word class of the word they attach to, such as,flower, flowers.,whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between,small,and,smallness,for the former, and that between,brother,and,brotherhood,for the latter.,Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in,“,The boy likes to navigate on the internet,.,”,is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence.,Distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes,Whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice of,clever and cleverness,depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”,(4)In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc.,But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.,Distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes,Some other terms,Root,Stem,Base,Root,A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, it is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.,e.g.,“,desire,”,in,“,desirable,”,“,care,”,in,“,carefully,”,“,nation,”,in,“,internationalism,”,“,believe,”,in,“,unbeliev(e)able,”,All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g.,black,in,blackbird, blackboard,and,blacksmith,;,-,ceive,in,receive,conceive,and,perceive.,A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word,sleep,is a free root morpheme, whereas,slep,-,in the past,tence,form,slept,cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.,Stem,A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, (it is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can be further analyzed),It sometimes could be a root.,e.g.,“,undesiralbe,”,in undesirables,Base,A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.,The difference of root, stem & base,A base can be added by both inflectional ,A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g.,undesire,in,undesirable),while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g.,desire,in,undesirable;,Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g.,desire,in,desired;,Undesirable,in,undesirables,is either a stem or a base;,Desirable,in,undesirable,is only a base.,Morphological rules(,词素音位规则,),The rules that govern the formation of words.,（,How morphemes are combined to form words, they reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words.,）,e.g. the,“,un- + -,”,rule.,unfair unthinkable unacceptable,Productive morphological rules,can become less productive in the course of time.,Word Formation,Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further,subclassified,into the,compositional,type (compound) and,derivational,type (derivation).,Compounding,Compounding,is the common way to form words. It is the combination of,free morphemes,. ,Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join/string,two separate words,to produce a single form,.,The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes nouns, verbs and adjectives and fall into the three classes.,Compounds,Noun compounds,daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V),windmill (N+N),Verb compounds,brainwash (N+V),lipread,(N+V),babysit(N+V,),Adjective compounds,maneating,(,N+Ving,) heartfelt (,N+Ved,),dutyfree,(,N+adj,.),Preposition compounds,into (P+P),throughout (P+P),Some points about compounds,When the two words are in the,same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g.,postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black,When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the,second or final,word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket,Compounds are written in three ways:,solid(airmail,),hyphenated(air,-conditioning),open(air,force, air raid),Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house,The meaning of a compound,is not always the sum,of the meanings of its parts.,Derivation,Derivation,forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.,Since derivation can apply,more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word,friend, we can form,befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed,complex derivation,.,Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.,Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.,Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.,Some English suffixes also change the word stress.,Clipping,Clipping,is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.,Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.,Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words,bus,(omnibus), vet,(veterinarian), gym,(gymnasium), fridge,(refrigerator),and,fax,(facsimile),are rarely used in their complete form.,Blending,（混成构词）,Blending,is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.,For example,smog,(smoke + frog),brunch,(a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch),motel,(motor + hotel).,There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students,“,plike,”,(a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).,Acronyms and Abbreviations,Acronyms,and,abbreviations,are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.,Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.,This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.,