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2/2/20231Chapter 3:Mobile Radio Propagation:Large-Scale Path Loss2/2/20232 3.1 Introduction to Radio wave Propagation Small-scale and large-scale fading2/2/202333.2 Free Space Propagation ModelIn free space,the received power is predicted by Firiis Equ.Pr d()PtGtGr 242d2LPr(d):Received power with a distance d between Tx and RxPt:Transmitted powerGt:Transmitting antenna gainGr:Receive antenna gain :The wavelength in meters.d:distance in metersL:The miscellaneous losses L(L=1)are usually due to transmission line attenuation,filter losses,and antenna losses in the communication system.L=1 indicates no loss in the system hardware.2/2/20234Reflection:occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.Diffraction:occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities(edges).Scattering:occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength,and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large.3.3 The three Basic Propagation Mechanisms2/2/20235 reflection（反射）at large obstacles,Scattering(散射)at small obstacles,diffraction(衍射)at edges2/2/20236EIRP&ERPEIRP:Effective Isotropic Radiated Power Represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain,as compared to an isotropic radiator.ERP:Effective Radiated Power ERP is used instead of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna(instead of an isotropic antenna).In practice,antenna gains are given in units of dBi(dB gain with respect to an isotropic sourse)or dBd(dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole)ttGPEIRP 2.15dB2/2/202379dBi antenna&3dBi antenna2/2/20238Path LossThe path loss,which represents signal attenuation as a positive difference(in dB)between the effective transmitted power and the received power.The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by quantity measured in dB,is defined as theWhen antenna gains are excluded,the antennas are assumed to have unity gain,and path loss is given by)4(log10log10)(222dGGPPdBPLrtrt222()10log10log(4)trPPL dBPd()32.4420lg20lgPL dBfd(f:MHz,d:km)2/2/20239The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d,which are in the far-field of the transmitting antenna.The far-field of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field distance df,which is related to the largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength.The far-field distance is given byTo be in the far-field region,d must satisfy22Ddffdd ffdDandd The far-field region of a transmitting antenna2/2/202310The Reference DistanceIt is clear that equation does not hold for d=0.For this reason,large-scale propagation models use a known received power reference point.The received power,Pr(d),at any distance dd0,may be related to Pr at d0.If Pr is in units of dBm or dBW,the received power is given by frrddddddPdP0200)()(00()10log()20log()trPdPL dPL dPd000()10log()20log()rrfdP dP ddddd2/2/2023113.4 Link budge design using path loss model00()()10 log()dPL dBPL dndLog-distance path loss modelBoth theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance,whether in outdoor or indoor channels.The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a function of distance by using path loss exponent n.n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases with distanced0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined d is the T-R separation distance2/2/202312Path-loss exponents2/2/202313If a transmitter produces power:Pt=50w,receive sensitivity(minimum usable signal level)is-100dbm.Assume d0=100m,with a 900MHz carrier frequency,n=4,Gt=Gr=1;find the coverage distance d.Transmit Power:Pt=50W=47dBmPr(d0)=-24.5dBmPL(dB)=40log(d/d0)=-24.5-(-100)=75.5dbIf n=4,log(d/d0)=75.5/40=1.8875,d=7718mExample 1 2/2/202314XddndPLXdBPLdBdPL)log(10)()()(00The model in Equation(3.11)does not consider the fact that the surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly different at two different locations having the same T-R separation.This leads to measured signals which are vastly different than the average value predicted by Equation(3.11).Log-normal Shadowing2/2/202315Log-normal Shadowing 2/2/202316iR0RdADetermination of Percentage of Coverage Area2/2/202317 U(r)as a function of probability of signal above threshold on the cell boundary.2/2/202318Example 2 A local average signal strength field measurements,the measured data fit a distant-dependent mean power law model having a log-normal distribution about the mean.Assume the mean power law was found to be .If a signal of 1mW was received at d0=1m from the transmitter,and at a distance of 10m,10%of the measurements were stronger than-25dBm,define the standard deviation,for the path loss model at d=10m.3.5()rP dd2/2/202319Four received power measurements were taken at distances of 100 m,200 m,1 km,and 3 km from a transmitter.These measured values are given in the following table.It is assumed that the path loss for these measurements follows the model in Equation(3.12.a),where d0=100 m:(a)find the minimum mean square error(MMSE)estimate for the path loss exponent,n;(b)calculate the standard deviation about the mean value;(c)estimate the received power at d=2 km using the resulting model;(d)predict the likelihood that the received signal level at 2 km will be greater than-60 dBm;and(e)predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that receives signals greater than-60 dBm,given the result in(d).Example 32/2/202320The value of n which minimizes the mean square error can be obtained by equating the derivative of J(n)to zero,and then solving for n.(a)Using Equation(3.11),we find =pi(d0)-10nlog(di/100 m).Recognizing that P(d0)=0 dBm,we find the following estimates for p,in dBm:The MMSE estimate may be found using the following method.Let pi be the received power at a distance di,and let be the estimate for pi using the path loss model of Equation(3.10).The sum of squared errors between the measured and estimated values is given byiP0(/)nd dSetting this equal to zero,the value of n is obtained as n=4.4.iP2/2/202321(b)The sample variance 2=J(n)/4 at n=4.4 can be obtained as follows.therefore =6.17 dB,which is a biased estimate.2/2/202322(c)The estimate of the received power at d=2 km is(d)The probability that the received signal level will be greater than-60 dBm is(e)67.4%of the users on the boundary receive signals greater than-60 dBm,then 92%of the cell area receives coverage above 60dbm 6057.24Pr()60()67.4%6.17rP ddbmQ 2/2/2023233.5 Outdoor Propagation Models Okumura Model(150-1920MHz,1km-100km)Hata Model(150-1500MHz,1km-20km)Egli Model(40-400MHz,0-64km)2/2/202324not provide any analytical explanation its slow response to rapid changes in terrain Okumura Model 2/2/202325Okumura median attenuation and correction2/2/202326Find the median path loss using Okumuras model for d=50 km,hte=100 m,hre=10 m in a suburban environment.If the base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier frequency of 900 MHz,find the power at the receiver(assume a unity gain receiving antenna).Example 42/2/202327HATA model&COST 231 extension2/2/202328Example 5In the suburban of a large city,d=10 km,hte=200 m,hre=2 m,carrier frequency of 900 MHz,using HATA s model find the path loss.50()69.55 26.16log900 13.82log200 1.05 (44.9 6.55log200)log10 143.80L urban dBdB250()143.802log(900/28)5.4133.86LdBdB2/2/2023293.6 Indoor propagation models2/2/202330Feature of Indoor Radio Channel The distances covered are much smaller,and the variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances.It has been observed that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by specific features such as the layout of the building,the construction materials,and the building type.Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor:reflection,diffraction,and scattering.However,conditions are much more variable.2/2/202331Path attenuation factors Partition Losses in the same floor Partition Losses between Floors(floor attenuation factors,FAF)2/2/202332Log-distance Path Loss Model In door path loss has been shown by many researchers to obey the distance power law Where the value of n depends on the surroundings and building type,and X represents a normal random variable in dB having a standard deviation of sigma.This is identical in form to the log-normal shadowing model of outdoor path attenuation model.XddndPLdBdPL)log(10)()(002/2/202333Attenuation Factor ModelWhere nSF represents the exponent value for the“same floor”measurement.The path loss on a different floor can be predicted by adding an appropriate value of FAF2/2/202334Signal Penetration into buildings RF penetration has been found to be a function of frequency as well as height within the building Measurements showed that penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency.Specifically,penetration attenuation values of 16.4dB,11.6dB,and 7.6dB were measured on the ground floor of a building at frequencies of 441MHz,896.5MHz,and 1400Mhz,respectly.Results showed that building penetration loss decreased at a rate of 1.9dB per floor from the ground level up to the fifteenth floor and then began increasing above the fifteen floor.2/2/202335Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling In recent years,the computational and visualization capabilities of computers have accelerated rapidly.New methods for predicting radio signal coverage involve the use of Site Specific(SISP)propagation models and graphical information system(GIS)database.SISP models support ray tracing as a means of deterministically modeling any indoor or outdoor propagation environment.Through the use of building databases,which may be drawn or digitized using standard graphical software packages,wireless system designers are able to include accurate representations of building and terrain features.2/2/202336Exercises1.If a transmitter produces 50W of power,express the transmit power in units of(a)dBm,and(b)dBW.If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency,find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna.What is Pr(10 km)?Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.2.If the base stations use 20 W transmitter powers and 10 dBi gain omnidirectional antennas,determine the cell coverage distance d.Let n=4 and the standard deviation of 8 dB hold as the path loss model for each cell in the city.Also assume that a required signal level of-90 dBm must be provided for 90%of the coverage area in each cell.Assume d0=1 km.(Q(0.7)=0.24,f=900MHz)
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