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1 1WhatisBiology 1 2TheOriginofLife1 3TheSignificanceofBiologyinYourLife1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Chapter1Biology Biologyisthestudyoflife Alongsidephysicsandchemistry biologyisoneofthelargestandmostimportantbranchesofscience Atthehighestlevel biologyisbrokendownbasedonthetypeoforganismbeingstudied zoology thestudyofanimals botany ofplants andmicrobiology ofmicroorganisms EachfieldhascontributedtomankindortheEarth swell beinginnumerousways Mostprominently botany toagriculture zoology tolivestockandprotectionofecologies andmicrobiology tothestudyofdiseaseandecosystemsingeneral 1 1WhatisBiology ProfessionalWordsandPhrases biology bai l d i n 生物学organism g niz m n 生物体zoology z u l d i n 动物学botany b t ni n 植物学microbiology maikr ubai l d i n 微生物学microorganism maikr u g niz m n 微生物well being wel bi i n 健康 福利agriculture grik lt n 农业livestock laivst k n 家畜 牲畜ecology i k l d i n 生态学disease di zi z n 疾病ecosystem ek usist m n 生态系统 Besidesclassificationsbasedonthecategoryoforganismbeingstudied biologycontainsmanyotherspecializedsub disciplines whichmayfocusonjustonecategoryoforganismoraddressorganismsfromdifferentcategories Thisincludesbiochemistry theinterfacebetweenbiologyandchemistry molecularbiology whichlooksatlifeonthemolecularlevel cellularbiology whichstudiesdifferenttypesofcellsandhowtheywork physiology whichlooksatorganismsattheleveloftissuesandorgans ecology whichstudiestheinteractionsbetweenorganismsthemselves ethology whichstudiesthebehaviorofanimals especiallycomplexanimals andgenetics overlappingwithmolecularbiology whichstudiesthecodeoflife DNA 1 1WhatisBiology Continued ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued classification kl sifi kei n n 分类 类别biochemistry bai u kemistri n 生物化学molecularbiology分子生物学molecularlevel分子水平cellularbiology细胞生物学physiology fizi l d i n 生理学tissue tisju n 生物的 组织organ g n n 生物的 器官interaction int r k n n 相互关系 相互作用ethology i l d i n 动物行为学genetics d i netiks n 遗传学overlap uv l p n 重叠 重复code k ud n 密码 法则 Thefoundationsofmodernbiologyincludefourcomponents celltheory thatlifeismadeoffundamentalunitscalledcells evolution thatlifeisnotdeliberatelydesignedbyratherevolvesincrementallythroughrandommutationsandnaturalselection genetheory thattinymolecularsequencesofDNAdictatetheentirestructureofanorganismandarepassedfromparentstooffspring andhomeostasis thateachorganism sbodyincludesacomplexsuiteofprocessesdesignedtopreserveitsbiochemistryfromtheentropiceffectsoftheexternalenvironment 1 1WhatisBiology Continued ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued celltheoryn 细胞理论evolution i v lu n n 进化randommutation随即突变naturalselection自然选择genetheory基因理论molecularsequence分子序列parent p r nt n 亲本 母本offspring fspri n 后代 子孙homeostasis h umi steisis n 自动平衡 体内平衡entropiceffect熵效应 ThebasicpictureinbiologyhasstayedroughlythesamesinceDNAwasfirstimagedusingx raycrystallographyinthe1950s althoughthereareconstantrefinementstothedetails andlifeissocomplexthatitcouldbecenturiesorevenmillenniabeforewebegintounderstanditinitsentirety Butitshouldbemadeclearthatwearemovingtowardscompleteunderstanding life whilecomplex consistsofafiniteamountofcomplexitythatonlyappreciablyincreasesonrelativelylongtimescalesofhundredsofthousandsormillionsofyears Evolution whilecreative operatesslowly 1 1WhatisBiology Continued Inrecentyears muchexcitementinbiologyhascenteredonthesequencingofgenomesandtheircomparison calledgenomics andthecreationoflifewithcustom writtenDNAprogramming calledsyntheticbiology Thesefieldsaresuretocontinuegrabbingtheheadlinesinthenearfuture 1 1WhatisBiology Continued ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued x raycrystallographyx射线晶体衍射学genome d i n um n 基因组genomics d n umiks n 基因组学syntheticbiology合成生物学 NotestotheDifficultSentences Besidesclassificationsbasedonthecategoryoforganismbeingstudied biologycontainsmanyotherspecializedsub disciplines whichmayfocusonjustonecategoryoforganismoraddressorganismsfromdifferentcategories 生物学的内容除了包括根据所研究生物种类的不同对其进行分类的有关知识 还包括许多其它专业化的分支学科知识 这些学科知识可能集中在一类生物或者生活在同一生境的各类生物方面 NotestotheDifficultSentences Continued ThebasicpictureinbiologyhasstayedroughlythesamesinceDNAwasfirstimagedusingx raycrystallographyinthe1950s althoughthereareconstantrefinementstothedetails andlifeissocomplexthatitcouldbecenturiesorevenmillenniabeforewebegintounderstanditinitsentirety 直到20世纪50年代 用X射线衍射得到DNA的结构之前 人们对于生物学的认识一直是粗浅的 尽管人们对生物学进行了不断地探索 但生命现象如此的复杂 以至于彻底研究清楚可能需要成百上千年的时间 1 1Exercises Matching 1 biologya thestudyofanimals2 zoologyb theinterfacebetweenbiologyandchemistry3 botanyc thestudyofthebehaviorofanimals4 microbiologyd thestudyoflife5 biochemistrye looksatlifeonthemolecularlevel6 molecularbiologyf studiesthecodeoflife7 ecologyg thestudyofplants8 ethologyh thestudyofmicroorganisms9 geneticsi studiestheinteractionsbetweenorganisms daghbeicf Theoriginoflifearethoughttohaveoccurredsometimebetween4 4billionyearsago whentheoceansandcontinentswerejuststartingtoform and2 7billionyearsago whenitiswidelyacceptedthatmicroorganismsexistedinvastnumbersduetotheirinfluenceoverisotoperatiosintherelevantstrata Whereexactlyinthis1 7billionyearrangethetrueoriginoflifecanbefoundislesscertain Acontroversialpaperpublishedin2002bytheUCLApaleontologistWilliamSchopfarguedthatwavygeologicalformationscalledstromalitesinfactcontain3 5billionyear oldfossilizedalgaemicrobes SomepaleontologistsdisagreewithSchopf sconclusionsandestimatethefirstlifeataround3 0billionyearsofageinsteadof3 5billion 1 2TheOriginofLife EvidencefromtheIsuasupracrustalbeltinWesternGreenlandsuggestsanevenearlierdatefortheoriginoflife 3 85billionyearsago S Mojzismakesthisestimatebasedonisotopeconcentrations BecauselifepreferentiallyuptakestheisotopeCarbon 12 areaswherelifehasexistedcontainahigher than normalratioofCarbon 12toitsheavierisotope Carbon 13 Thisiswidelyknown buttheinterpretationofsedimentsislessstraightforward andpaleontologistsdonotalwaysagreeontheircolleague sconclusions 1 2TheOriginofLife Continued ProfessionalWordsandPhrases originoflife生命的起源isotope ais t up n 同位素strata streit n 地层geological d i l d ik l adj 地质学的stromalite str um tlait n 叠层石fossilize f silaiz vt vi 使成化石 使陈腐algae ld i n 水藻 海藻alga的复数形式microbe maikr ub n 微生物paleontologist p li n t l d ist n 古生物学家supracrustal sju pr kr st l adj 地层 岩组等 覆盖基底岩石的 上地壳的carbon k b n n 碳sediment sedim nt n 沉淀 Wedonotknowtheexactgeologicalconditionsofthisplanet3billionyearsago butwedohavearoughidea andcanrecreatetheseconditionsinalaboratory StanleyMillerandHaroldUreyrecreatedtheseconditionsintheirfamous1953investigation theMiller Ureyexperiment Usingahighlyreduced non oxygenated mixtureofgasessuchasmethane ammonia andhydrogen thesescientistssynthesizedbasicorganicmonomers suchasaminoacids inacompletelyinorganicenvironment Now free floatingaminoacidsareafarcryfromself replicating metabolism imbuedmicroorganisms buttheyatleastgiveasuggestionastohowthingsmighthavegottenstarted 1 2TheOriginofLife Continued geologicalcondition地质条件laboratory l br t ri n 实验室oxygenate ksid ineit v 以氧处理 氧化n 氧化剂methane me ein n 甲烷 沼气ammonia m unj n 氨hydrogen haidr d n n 氢organic g nik adj 器官的 有机的monomer m n m n 单体aminoacid氨基酸inorganic in g nik adj 无机的 无生物的self replicate self replikeit v 自我复制metabolism me t b liz m n 新陈代谢 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued InthelargewarmoceansofearlyEarth quintillionsofthesemoleculeswouldrandomlycollideandcombine eventuallymakingarudimentaryproto genomeofsomesort However thishypothesisisconfusedbythefactthattheenvironmentcreatedintheMiller Ureyexperimenthadhighconcentrationsofchemicalsthatwouldhavepreventedtheformationofcomplexpolymersfromthemonomerbuildingblocks 1 2TheOriginofLife Continued quintillion kwin tilj n n 百万的三次方molecule m likju l n 分子rudimentary ru d ment ri adj 基本的 初步的 未充分发展的proto genomen 原始的基因组hypothesis hai p sis n 假说 假设 猜测polymer p lim n 多聚体 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued Inthe1950sand1960s anotherresearcher SidneyFox madeanearly Earth likeenvironmentinalabandstudiedthedynamics Heobservedthespontaneousformationofpeptidesfromaminoacidprecursors andsawthesechemicalssometimesarrangedthemselvesintomicrospheres orclosedsphericalmembranes whichhesuggestedwereprotocells Ifcertainmicrospheresformedwhichwerecapableofencouragingthegrowthofadditionalmicrospheresaroundthem itwouldamounttoaprimitiveformofself replication andeventuallyDarwinianevolutionwouldtakeover creatingeffectiveself replicatorsliketoday scyanobacteria 1 2TheOriginofLife Continued dynamics dai n miks n 力学 动力学 动态peptide peptaid n 肽membrane membrein n 薄膜 膜状物proto celln 细胞的原始状态microsphere maikr sfi n 微球体 微滴primitive primitiv adj 原始的 简陋的self replicationn 自我复制Darwinianevolution达尔文进化cyanobacteria sai n u b kti n 蓝细菌cyanobacterium的复数形式 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued BecauselifepreferentiallyuptakestheisotopeCarbon 12 areaswherelifehasexistedcontainahigher than normalratioofCarbon 12toitsheavierisotope Carbon 13 Thisiswidelyknown buttheinterpretationofsedimentsislessstraightforward andpaleontologistsdonotalwaysagreeontheircolleague sconclusions NotestotheDifficultSentences 因为生命优先吸收同位素碳 12 所以在生命存在的地方含有比正常值更高的碳 12与更重的同位素碳 13的比值 这是众所周知的 但是用沉淀物来解释并不够直接 所以古生物学家们并不完全认同他们同行的结论 Usingahighlyreduced non oxygenated mixtureofgasessuchasmethane ammonia andhydrogen thesescientistssynthesizedbasicorganicmonomers suchasaminoacids inacompletelyinorganicenvironment Now free floatingaminoacidsareafarcryfromself replicating metabolism imbuedmicroorganisms buttheyatleastgiveasuggestionastohowthingsmighthavegottenstarted NotestotheDifficultSentences Continued 这些科学家使用高度还原的 非氧化 甲烷 氨和氢等的气体混合物 在一个绝对无机环境中合成了氨基酸等基本的有机单体 尽管这些游离氨基酸远不同于现在的自我复制并具有各种新陈代谢的微生物 但是它们至少暗示生命是怎样发生的 1 2Exercises Matching 1 stromalitesa ascientistwhostudiespaleontology learningabouttheformslifethatexistedinformergeologicperiods chieflybystudyingfossils 2 proto genomeb aproposedexplanationforaphenomenon 3 paleontologistc theprimitiveformofagenome4 Proto celld wavygeologicalformations5 hypothesise theprimitiveformofacell dcaeb 1 3TheSignificanceofBiologyinYourLife Biologyisthesciencethatdealswiththestudyofvarietiesoflivingorganismsincludingourselves Thesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylifeliesinthefactthatbiologyattemptstofindouttheunifyingprinciplethatexistsamongdiverseorganismshavingmorphologicalandfunctionalinequalities Thesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylifecanbeconsideredfromthetwonaturaldivisionsofthescienceitself plantlifeandanimallife ProfessionalWordsandPhrases morphological m f l d ik l adj 形态学的functional f k n l adj 功能的 实用的inequality ini kw l ti n 不平等 不平均 不平坦division di vi n n 划分 部门 Agricultureplaysgreatroleinnarratingthesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylife Agricultureislargelytheresultofman stakingtheadvantageoftheinterrelationsofsoil climateandnaturalhabitattoselectthoseparticularcombinationsthatmeethisbasicrequirements Thustoprovidenecessaryfood mandependsentirelyongreenplantsthatcanalonecapturethesolarenergy Highyieldingvarietiesofcropplantslikerice wheat jute sugarcane pulsesetcarenowbredexperimentally Disease resistantgrainsandvernalizedseedsaremade Biologicalcontrolstrategiesareundertakenaspestcontrolemphasizingthesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylife Modernmandoesnotdependonfishingandhuntinglikeourancestorsandinsteadrearsfishesaswellascattleandvariousotherdomesticanimalstogetfoodandothernecessitiesoflife Thishasresultedinthedevelopmentoffisheryandanimalhusbandry Theimportanceofbiologyinyourdailylifeliesintheproductionofclothesandtimberformakingfurniture insuppliedrawmaterialsforpaper dyes etc Fossilsareimportantinlocatingundergroundoilandnaturalgasreserves Evencoalandmineraloilformedfromdecomposedplantbodiesarekeytoindustrialprosperity 1 3TheSignificanceofBiologyinYourLife Continued interrelation int ri lei n n 相互关系habitat h bit t n 栖息地 产地greenplants绿色植物solarenergy太阳能jute d u t n 黄麻纤维sugarcane甘蔗pulse p ls n 豌豆和豆类等结荚植物可食性种子Disease resistantadj 抗病的grain grein n 谷物 谷类vernalize v n laiz v 施以春化处理 以人工方法促进发育biologicalcontrol生物学防治pestcontrol昆虫防治domestic d mestik adj 驯养的fishery fi ri n 渔场 渔业animalhusbandry畜牧业decompose di k m p uz vi 分解 腐烂vt 腐烂 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued Medicaladvancementalsoshowsthesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylives Thestudyofdreadeddiseases theircausativeagents cureaswellastheactionsofdrugsareawayofbiologicalenlightenmentthatstrivesminimizinghumansuffering Thesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylifealsoliesinfindingandcuringhereditaryabnormalitieslikehaemophilia Down ssyndrome etc Biologyaimsinmakingefforttobetterhumanracethrougheugenics Biologystudyhasavitalroleincontrollingenvironmentalpollutionandattractedsenseofartandbeauty 1 3TheSignificanceofBiologyinYourLife Continued medical medik l adj 医疗的 医学的 医药的 内科的medicaladvancement医学进展dread dred adj 可怕的 恐怖的v 恐惧 害怕causative k z tiv adj 引起 的causativeagent病原体 病原物hereditary hi redit ri adj 世袭的 遗传的abnormality bn m liti n 异常 畸形haemophilia hi m fili n 血友病 出血不止Down ssyndrome唐氏综合症eugenics ju d eniks n 优生学environmentalpollution环境污染 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued NotestotheDifficultSentences Medicaladvancementalsoshowsthesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylives Thestudyofdreadeddiseases theircausativeagents cureaswellastheactionsofdrugsareawayofbiologicalenlightenmentthatstrivesminimizinghumansuffering Thesignificanceofbiologyinyourdailylifealsoliesinfindingandcuringhereditaryabnormalitieslikehaemophilia Down ssyndrome etc Biologyaimsinmakingefforttobetterhumanracethrougheugenics 医学上的进展也体现出了生物学在日常生活中的重要意义 研究令人可怕的疾病 治疗疾病的药物 治疗疾病的方法以及药物活性是人类领悟生物学努力使其痛苦最小化的一种方式 生物学的重要意义也体现在人们对血友病 唐氏综合症等遗传畸形疾病的发现和治疗方面 生物学的目的就是致力于借助优生学知识努力改善人的种族 1 3Exercise Matching 1 agriculturea geneticallytransmittedortransmittablefromparenttooffspring2 morphologicalb agroupofhereditarygeneticdisordersthatimpairthebody sabilitytocontrolbloodclottingorcoagulation3 hereditaryc thecultivationofanimals plants fungiandotherlifeformsforfood fiber andotherproductsusedtosustainlife 4 haemophiliad theappliedscienceorthebiosocialmovementwhichadvocatestheuseofpracticesaimedatimprovingthegeneticcompositionofapopulation 5 decomposee relatingtoorconcernedwiththemorphologyofplants microorganismsandanimals6 eugenicsf toseparateintocomponentsorbasicelementsorcausetorot ceabfd 1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Thehistoryofbiologytracesthestudyofthelivingworldfromancienttomoderntimes Althoughtheconceptofbiologyasasinglecoherentfieldaroseinthe19thcentury thebiologicalsciencesemergedfromtraditionsofmedicineandnaturalhistoryreachingbacktoayurveda ancientEgyptianmedicineandtheworksofAristotleandGalenintheancientGreco Romanworld ThisancientworkwasfurtherdevelopedintheMiddleAgesbyMuslimphysiciansandscholarssuchasAvicenna DuringtheEuropeanRenaissanceandearlymodernperiod biologicalthoughtwasrevolutionizedinEuropebyarenewedinterestinempiricismandthediscoveryofmanynovelorganisms ProminentinthismovementwereVesaliusandHarvey whousedexperimentationandcarefulobservationinphysiology andnaturalistssuchasLinnaeusandBuffonwhobegantoclassifythediversityoflifeandthefossilrecord aswellasthedevelopmentandbehavioroforganisms Microscopyrevealedthepreviouslyunknownworldofmicroorganisms layingthegroundworkforcelltheory Thegrowingimportanceofnaturaltheology partlyaresponsetotheriseofmechanicalphilosophy encouragedthegrowthofnaturalhistory althoughitentrenchedtheargumentfromdesign 1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Continued medicine medisin n 医学novel n v l adj 新奇的experimentation iksperimen tei n n 抽象的实验法classify kl sifai vt 分类 归类diversity dai v siti n 多样性 差异microscopy maikr sk upi n 显微镜使用 用显微镜检查theology i l d i n 自然神学mechanicalphilosophy机械论哲学 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Overthe18thand19thcenturies biologicalsciencessuchasbotanyandzoologybecameincreasinglyprofessionalscientificdisciplines Lavoisierandotherphysicalscientistsbegantoconnecttheanimateandinanimateworldsthroughphysicsandchemistry Explorer naturalistssuchasAlexandervonHumboldtinvestigatedtheinteractionbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment andthewaysthisrelationshipdependsongeographylayingthefoundationsforbiogeography ecologyandethology Naturalistsbegantorejectessentialismandconsidertheimportanceofextinctionandthemutabilityofspecies Celltheoryprovidedanewperspectiveonthefundamentalbasisoflife Thesedevelopments aswellastheresultsfromembryologyandpaleontology weresynthesizedinCharlesDarwin stheoryofevolutionbynaturalselection Theendofthe19thcenturysawthefallofspontaneousgenerationandtheriseofthegermtheoryofdisease thoughthemechanismofinheritanceremainedamystery 1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Continued biologicalsciences生物科学naturalist n t r list n 自然主义者biogeography bai ud i gr fi n 生物地理学mutability mju t bil ti n 易变性species spi i z n 种类 单复同 物种embryology embri l d i n 胚胎学 发生学spontaneousgeneration自然发生germ d m n 病原微生物mechanism mek niz m n 机制 原理inheritance in herit ns n 遗传 继承 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued Intheearly20thcentury therediscoveryofMendel sworkledtotherapiddevelopmentofgeneticsbyThomasHuntMorganandhisstudents andbythe1930sthecombinationofpopulationgeneticsandnaturalselectioninthe neo Darwiniansynthesis Newdisciplinesdevelopedrapidly especiallyafterWatsonandCrickproposedthestructureofDNA FollowingtheestablishmentoftheCentralDogmaandthecrackingofthegeneticcode biologywaslargelysplitbetweenorganismalbiology thefieldsthatdealwithwholeorganismsandgroupsoforganisms andthefieldsrelatedtocellularandmolecularbiology Bythelate20thcentury newfieldslikegenomicsandproteomicswerereversingthistrend withorganismalbiologistsusingmoleculartechniques andmolecularandcellbiologistsinvestigatingtheinterplaybetweengenesandtheenvironment aswellasthegeneticsofnaturalpopulationsoforganisms 1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Continued populationgenetics数量遗传学CentralDogma中心法则geneticcode遗传密码organismalbiology有机体生物学proteomics pr uti umiks n 蛋白质组学biologist bai l d ist n 生物学家moleculartechnique分子技术 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued Atthebeginningofthe21stcentury biologicalsciencesconvergedwithpreviouslydifferentiatednewandclassicdisciplineslikePhysicsintoresearchfieldslikebiophysics Advancesweremadeinanalyticalchemistryandphysicsinstrumentationincludingimprovedsensors optics tracers instrumentation signalprocessing networks robots satellites andcomputepowerfordatacollection storage analysis modeling visualization andsimulations Thesetechnologyadvancesallowedtheoreticalandexperimentalresearchincludinginternetpublicationofmolecularbiochemistry biologicalsystems andecosystemsscience Thisenabledworldwideaccesstobettermeasurements theoreticalmodels complexsimulations theorypredictivemodelexperimentation analysis worldwideinternetobservationaldatareporting openpeer review collaboration andinternetpublication Newfieldsofbiologicalsciencesresearchemergedincludingbioinformatics theoreticalbiology computationalgenomics astrobiologyandsyntheticbiology 1 4TheHistoryofBiology AdditionalReading Continued biophysics bai u fiziks n 生物物理学analyticalchemistry分析化学instrumentation instr men tei n n 仪器化sensor sens n 传感器optics ptiks n 光学molecularbiochemistry分子生物化学biologicalsystems生物系统bioinformatics bai inf m tiks n 生物信息学theoreticalbiology理论生物学computationalgenomics计算基因组学astrobiology str bai d i n 太空生物学 ProfessionalWordsandPhrases Continued NotestotheDifficultSentences Explorer naturalistssuchasAlexandervonHumboldtinvestigatedtheinteractionbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment andthewaysthisrelationshipdependsongeographylayingthefoundationsforbiogeography ecologyandethology Naturalistsbegantorejectessentialismandconsidertheimportanceofextinctionandthemutabilityofspecies Celltheoryprovidedanewperspectiveonthefundamentalbasisoflife Thesedevelopments aswellastheresultsfromembryologyandpaleontology weresynthesizedinCharlesDarwin stheoryofevolutionbynaturalselection Theendofthe19thcenturysawthefallofspontaneousgenerationandtheriseofthegermtheoryofdisease thoughthemechanismofinheritanceremainedamystery 像AlexandervonHumboldt等自然主义者这样的探索者研究了生物体与环境的相互作用及其依赖于地理学的方式 这就为生物物理学 生态学和动物行为学奠定了基础 自然主义者开始抵制实在论并认为物种灭绝和易变性的重要性 细胞理论提供了一个观察生命理论基础的新视角 这些发展以及胚胎学和古生物学的研究成果是在以自然选择为基础的达尔文进化理论中被合成的 尽管十九世纪末遗传机制仍是个谜 但此时产生了自然发生说和疾病的病原体理论 1 4Exercise Matching 1 novela thesetofrulesbywhichinformationencodedingeneticmaterial DNAormRNAsequences istranslatedintoproteins aminoacidsequences