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Chapter one Introduction1.1什么是语言学1.1.1定义语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支 必考P2普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异 必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. （2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. （3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. （4）Langue and parole 语言和言语 必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use. （5）Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 （6） Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of Fde Saussure s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. Before that is traditional grammar.Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。 )1.2什么是语言1.2.1 定义语言language：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 1.2.2 Design features of language 必考P8It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 （创造性） Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 1.2.3 Functions of language 语言的功能Descriptive function, expressive function, social functionSix elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson:Addresser - Emotive 感情功能Addressee - Conative 意动功能Context - Referential 所指功能Message - Poetic 诗歌功能Contact - Phatic communion 寒暄功能Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能Chapter Two Phonology2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1定义Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音2.2.2 Organs of speech3个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔-the throat，the oral cavity口腔-the mouth，nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 浊音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 2.2.3宽式音标和严式音标宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 严式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 送气Aspirated不送气Unaspirated2.2.4Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类Vowel and consonant元音辅音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. Classification of English consonants a: in terms of the manners of articulation(发音方式): Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6 Fricatives(摩擦音): /f/ /v/ / / /s/ /z/ / / h/ /r/ 8 Affricatives(塞擦音): /t/ /d/ Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/ Nasals(鼻音): /m,n,/ Glides(滑音): /w j/ b: in terms of place of articulation(发音部位) bilabials(双唇音): /p b m w/ labiodentals(唇齿音): /f v/ dentals(齿音): / alveolars(齿龈音): /t d n l r s/ 6 palatals(腭音): /j t d / 5 velars(软腭音): /k g/ glottal(喉音): /h/ Classification of English vowels a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back, b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open. c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short2.3Phonplogy音位学2.3.2Phone, phoneme and allophone音素Phonea phonetic unit or segment. 音位Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. 音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 2.3.4 explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule . 序列规则Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则Deletion ruleIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.2.3.5 Suprasegmental features超音段特征重音 Stress声调 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.语调 IntonationChapter Three Morphology 形态学3.2 Open class and closed classOpen class words 实词，词数可增加Closed class words 虚词，词数稳定3.3 Morphemes 词素词素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 自由词素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 3.4词根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 词缀Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 3.5 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生Derivational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of wordsE.g. modern-modernize length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.曲折Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,E.g. a) Number: tables apples cars b) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) Case: John/Johns派生词 Derivation复合词 CompoundsChapter Four Syntax 句法学句法学Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）Phrase categories and their structures短语分类与结构Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead（中心语）- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（标志成分）- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补足成分）- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det限定词) + N + (PP)e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual修饰词) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg程度词) + A + (PP)very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationSNP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.句法类型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 表层结构S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 深层结构D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 普遍语法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. NP the student who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP()有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformations 位移和转换的限制 必考（定义和作用）This general rule is referred to as Move , where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.（我也不知道作用是啥，就会用）这章重点就是画图Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）同义词Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 多义词Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 同音(形)异义Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 反义词Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 预设Presupposition Its a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 蕴涵Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y. 互为同义、同对错X entails Y. 包含关系-X包含YX presupposes Y. 假设、推测 由X推测出YX is a contradiction. 矛盾句X is semantically anomalous. 不等逻辑、错误逻辑5.2.3 Contextualism 语境论 必考，考啥未知P64自己看书5.5.1 Componential analysis语义成分分析Componential analysisComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structure semanticists（结构语义学）to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features（语义特征）.述谓分析 Predication analysisA way to analyze sentence meaning.主项（论元）argument+ （谓词）predicateEg. (The dogs)主项 (barks)谓词.带一个主项的述谓 one-place predicationChapter 6 pragmatics 语用学Pragmatics 必考The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.The study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.Pragmatics=semantics+context语境ContextIt is generally considerd as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.语句意义与话语意义Sentence meaning V.S utterance meaningIf we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.6.2言语行为理论Speech act theory 必考P80Its an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act（言内行为）, the illocutionary act（言外行为）, the perlocutionary act（言后行为）and the categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 言内行为Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performed in saying something. 言后行为 Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. its the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. Searles classification of speech act 必考P82阐述性Representatives-to commit the speaker to somethings being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directives-are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例 承诺性Commissives-when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型 表达类Expressives-the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告类Declarations-the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句 :I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force. 合作原则（CP原则）Principles of conversation (Co-operative principles)Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher数量准则the maxim of Quantity-你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量准则the maxim of Quality -不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系准则the maxim of relation-使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式准则the maxim of manner-避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序 Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.
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