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AbstractBecause of the differences in geographical location, daily habbits and history, a variety in Chinese and Western cultures, especially in Chinese and American cultures have evolved. Time concept differences of Chinese and American are directly caused by the two regions people holding many different values in their daily lives, studies, and work. Some people are born with an impatient personality, while others with a slow temperament. Some people are always very punctual, while others may be frequently late to appointments. These differences are reflected in Chinese and American different time concepts. In the following paper, supported by scientific sources and researches, the author will discuss the time concept of Chinese and American in cross-cultural communication, and try to avoid cultural conflicts.Keywords: Chinese and American cultures; time concept; cross-cultural communication摘 要由于地域、日常习惯和历史的差异，孕育出了多样化的中西方文化，尤其是中美文化。中美时间观念的差异就是由两地的人们在日常生活、学习或工作中许许多多不同的价值观念所产生的。有的人天生就是急性子，而有的人却从小就是慢脾气。有的人守时，可有的人常迟到。这些都反映出中美人们不同的时间观念。在下文中，笔者将结合一些科学的研究资料探讨跨文化交际中的中美时间观以避免文化冲突。关键词：中美文化；时间观念；跨文化交际Contents1. Introduction12. Literature review12.1 The definition of time concept12.2 The importance of time concept in cross-cultural communication13. The differences in Chinese and American time concept23.1 The line-type time outlook and the round-type time outlook23.1.1 Americans line-type time outlook23.1.2 Chineses round-type time outlook33.2 Mono-chronic time and poly-chronic time43.2.1 Americans mono-chronic time concept53.2.2 Chineses poly-chronic time concept73.3 Chineses past-time orientation and Americans future-time orientation83.3.1 Chineses past-time orientation83.3.2 Americans future-time orientation104. The crasis of Chinese and American time concept124.1 Peoples consciousness of time thrift is strengthening124.2 Past-time orientation is turning into future-time orientation135. Conclusion14References151. IntroductionThis paper aims to explore differences in Chinese and American time concepts and culture. The author hopes this paper can, to a certain degree, give the readers a clear understanding about the peoples concept of time in the two regions. The study on the concept of time is to help us to understand cultural differences and help us carry out effective international communication, improve cross-cultural awareness, reduce barriers to cross-cultural communication and the misunderstanding resulting from the different concept of time as much as possible, and avoid “cultural conflict” or “time conflict” in cross-cultural communication.2. Literature review2.1 The definition of time conceptTime concept is evolved from the process of people understanding and transforming the world. Time concept will remain relatively stable for a fairly long period. According to Liu Xifang(2009), time concept refers to the different awareness and understanding towards time. It is not only a basic factor in the environment of human activity, but also a deep-seated cultural part of the social srtucture. It is shaped naturally through the long-period practice of human being and the long-period historical progress. It reflects the attitude of people towards time. At the same time, it also reflects the way that people deal with time and utilize time. Everyone has his or her own concept of time. Therefore, different people, especially the people in China and America have different concepts of time.2.2 The importance of time concept in cross-cultural communication As global economic integration moves on, Chinese-American cultural communication and integration become more frequent. Understanding different cultural concepts of time improves cross-cultural awareness and reduces barriers to cross-cultural communication. Avoiding “cultural conflict” or “time conflict” become more and more important.If people only recognize and adhere to their own concept of time and neglect understanding and respect to the time concept of other cultures, there would arise many misunderstandings. We should acknowlegde that people from Chinese and American cultures hold different attitudes towards time and the method of using time. Then we should overcome the ethical cultural centrism and reduce the misunderstanding of different concepts of time as much as possible. The time orientation under different cultures should get respect and recognition. When there is a conflict in the time concept, we can not simply jugde it as good or bad. Cultural communication is a process of understanding from one culture to another. Therefore, in order to deepen mutual understanding, it is necessary to adopt a liberal attitude. 3. The differences in Chinese and American time concept3.1 The line-type time outlook and the round-type time outlookAccording to Guan Shijie (1995:285), time outlook can be divided into round-type time outlook and line-type time outlook, Americans belong to line-type time outlook, while Chinese people belong to round-type time outlook.3.1.1 Americans line-type time outlook In American eyes, time is like a river which flows straight to sea from the headstream. Once time has gone, it will never come back. So Americans cherish time so much. The American hero Benjamin Franklin said “Do you love life? If love, dont waste your time, because life is made up of time.”The American culture with Jewish Christian tradition usually regards time as a straight line and a linear continuous one-way movement. Time is moving, time is going by, time is both precious and obstinate, once gone it can never be restored. They also believe that time has beginning and ending too, and time can be measured by the clock or calendar. Everything is accurate to every minute, or even milliseconds. Time in American society is almost a commodity. It is real and valuable, it can be bought and sold, you can save and you can waste time. You can lose and you can borrow time. Time can be manufactured and can be measured. American popular magazines often publish related articles with such proposal that how people can use time efficiently on shopping, cooking, cleaning house, raising children, and flower gardening. In the United States, “New York Times” column on the business, there is an author who has claimed himself as “efficiency expert”, he recommends an effective way to utilize time and make the next days development activities plan when sleeping by the mobilization of the unconscious. He said such a way can make full use of sleep time, rather than waste. The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:“Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.”“Time and tide wait for no man.”“Ake hay while the sun shines.”“Tomorrow never comes.”3.1.2 Chineses round-type time outlook The special way that the farm-based easterners carry through exchanging material with nature has been dominant in the whole economic life of all society. Such a rural civilization regards people and nature as interrelated, and regard the world as an organical whole. The result is the Oriental Societys “Man and Nature” round-type time concept. This means that time changes in harmony with natural rhythm, which is a movement that moves eternally and cyclically along its arc and spiral, such as alternating in day and night, seasons back and forth, months rotating, ages changing, plants cycle growth, labors farming seasons turnover, are self-movement reverting in cycles (Jia Yuxin, 1977:71). This concept of time as four seasons: reincarnation and endless cycling make Asians look very rich in terms of time, they can use more discretionary time to do anything without worrying. For example, if the school teacher havent finished an important element of text, he would drag a period of time to finish it after class; There are few people who mention the time in Chinese wedding invitations, people can come to dinner late separated by an hour long with the early ones, so a feast can last even two or three hours. Appointment time to see our friends is hardly determined. For example, if there is a friend who has not been seen for a long time, and want to see you during weekend, maybe you should stay home all day,and wait for him to come.3.2 Mono-chronic time and poly-chronic time According to observation, Edward.T. Hall（1983：42）has divided the using of time in different cultures into two classifications, one is monochronic time system; the other is polychronic time system (Hall, 1982: 16). The society within heavy industry, in general, adopts the monochronic time system. They just arrange the line of time strictly, arrange things in a certain piece of time without changing so easily under the arrangement. They like to do things efficiencily. The polychronic time is the heritage of traditional agricultural society, people like to do several things together in a same time.3.2.1 Americans mono-chronic time conceptThe Americans are used to doing only one thing in a certain time, so they like to plan time carefully and thoughtfully. Therefore, calendars, schedules, diaries, annuals and accounting ledgers play an important role in the American society. To some extent, it extremely controls the social activities of people, it decides what they do or dont do at any moment, what must be done first, what should be done finally. Americans are controled by the clock tightly, they even regard themselves as the slave to nothing but the clock. Just like Hall said “In the Western world, nobody can get out of the control of mono-time system. In fact, society and bussiness life, even the sexual behavior are in the control of time. Time makes the peoples total life net.” (Hall, 1982: 20). This can be found out from the bussiness activities in the cross-cultural communication. Americans demand to deal with things according to time table. As the Americans cherish time so much, they belive:“Time is money.”“Punctuality is the politeness of princes.”“Punctuality is the soul of business.”“Time works wonders.”“Time works great changes.”3.2.1.1 Making plans Making plans before doing things is a common habbit in America. Words like “schedule” and “agenda”, are used widely in American life. Because Americans like to make plans in advance, they do everything by complying with the arrangement. As soon as they find they are not following the schedule, they will get very uneasy and try best to quicken the speed.Whats more, Americans usually calculate time in minutes or seconds, they are controled deeply by clock.Americans always plan what should be done next in their minds in advance. Appointment and schedules are very important to members of monochromic cultures. People are concerned about it not being disturbed. They do everything by their agenda. Once the time they plan is over, they will stop whatever they are doing at once. Then do what they plan to do next. When people plan an event, they often set the time days or weeks beforehand. Once the time is fixed, it takes almost an emergency to change it. If people want to come to your home for a friendly visit, they will usually make a call to make sure whether it is convenient. If you dont do like this, Americans would think that you are not polite, because sudden visit would upset their plans. According to an investigation, some foreign teachers in China often complain that they are not informed in advance. Classes exchanging, class-cancelingedree give, and sports meeting, often are informed in the last minute. Sometimes, without consulting with them, they ask them to lecture or record. For these matters, they feel unhappy because they do not like the last minute notice (Hu Xiaoqiong，2000: 1). So Chinese people are easier to “go with the flow” than Americans who like plans to be fixed and unchangeable. Influenced by time thrift, Americans treat time seriously. If they cannot plan their time properly, they will be looked down upon by others.In businesses, “Time is money”, everyone follows set agendas. Minutes are spent at meetings that are precisely scheduled. North Americans take pride in finding time to spend with family and friends when juggling busy work schedules.Generally speaking, if Americans have arranged his time for study at home, he will not change his plan. Americans often make every days plan, every weeks plan, and even every years plan. Once the plan is arranged, they will not change it.In English, we often hear these expressions, “My agenda for today starts with” “Place on the agenda,” “Map out a schedule,” “Accomplish some thing according to schedule.” Once Americans find themselves are behind the schedule, they become pressured. Then they do their best to speed up. As E.T.Hall (1959:20) said, “They slave to nothing, but the clock.” In America, the clock not only masters peoples social life, but also other aspects of life. The time clock records the hour we must work, the school bells move us from class to class, and the calendar marks important days and events in our lives. In a word, clock decides what should be done in advance. The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:“Affairs that are done by due degrees are soon ended.”“Forewarned is forearmed.”“Preparedness ensures success, unpreparedness spells failure.”“Preparedness ensures security; unpreparedness invites disaster.”“To be wise is to think everything beforehand.”3.2.1.2 Keeping watchKeeping watch is another common habbit in America. In Americans views, going to meeting on time is to go without saying. The behavior of coming late is very impolite. No matter whether the appointment is personal or public meeting, if you are late for it, you will be regarded as a lazy person, and you will lose trust from others. In the personal intercourse, you may lose your friends; In the work, you may lose the chance to get promoted.3.2.2 Chineses poly-chronic time conceptBecause the Chinese culture is good at the integration, it is usually thought that Chinese adopt the polychronic time system. People can plan several things at the same time, and also do these things together. Chinese think that the whole thing in the world develop and change with the change of time. So people prefer to do things in a good chance, that is each step of action is decided temporarily by the surroundings. So that, the whole work in the arrangement will be disturbed easily by other things. It shows that there is much less fixing time before meeting, and friends or relatives neednt to fix time before going to visit each other. In some official departments, the staff can chat, read newspaper, when they work.If the work has not been done in the first day, he can go on to do it in the second day. Also, the salesperson can settle accounts with the first customer. At the same time, he takes out the goods to let the second customer look, even say hello to the third customer. This is what Americans disagree with and cant accept.3.3 Chineses past-time orientation and Americans future-time orientationOur fixation with time and the power we give it are rather obvious. “Time is kindly god” (Samovar, Porter, Stefani, 2000: 76). As is the case with most of the issues discussed in this paper, cultures vary widely in their concept of time, what they differ lies in the value placed on the past, present, and future and how each influences interaction. 3.3.1 Chineses past-time orientationChina has a past-time orientation culture. Past time orientation of a person either to the past to heart, towards the past, things like what happened on just the same or attention to the old life, repeatedly restated thing of the past. China is one of the worlds four ancient civilizations. A splendid cultural heritage of 5,000 years, with ancient, old means respected. Experience and qualifications in the social life is very important, old age is a sign of wisdom. As the saying goes: “Do not listen to elders, suffer in the eyes.” Before do things, people always ask the older generation of experience learned with an open mind. Linked to this is the worship of ancestors, respect for teachers, re-experience, re-aged.In the present, past and future, these three relevant dimensions of time exist, however different nations hold different opinions. Experienced the farming culture, Chinese approach to look back past orientation, they are living in a tradition-oriented Society. People cherish the past with clear reverence. Past experience and lessons are always an important reference to judge the success or failure of something today. The future is not as interesting as the past, because it is unknowable and elusive. And relatively, people worship their ancestors and respect teachers, like doing things by citeing the track and source. Because these things are associated with the past. This is why people call the teachers “old division”, for the sake of “The old ginger is hotter”. This past orientation, also affects Chinese peoples national character. Generally speaking, China is a society which seeking static stability. Unity and stability are the top priority of each dynasty and the guarantee of social development; “single-mindedness”, “Contentment is happiness”, “Ancient book is thick”, “Good deed goes unpunishedly”, “ancestors of the law can not change” and other ideas are the manifestation of seeking stability and past orientation without exception.The following proverbs reflect this time concept of people:“Act according to circumstances.”“A wreck on shore is a beacon at sea.”“An old poacher makes the best keeper.”“An old oven is easier to heat than a new one.”“An old establishment never wants customers.”“Lessons learned from the past can guide one in the future.”“Predict the future by reviewing the past.”“The overturned cart ahead is a warning beforehand.”“The old ginger is hot.”“The older one grows, the more one learns.”“Rules that ancestor decided can not be changed.”“To forget the past is to betray.”3.3.2 Americans future-time orientationChinese culture is different from the United States which is dominated by the future-time orientation culture. All future-time orientation focus on the future, the future direction of their important values. Christian in Western countries believe in “evil human nature,” From the impact of eating the forbidden fruit and the guilt of original sin, human lost paradise and came to earth to suffer blame. For Americans, there is no back way, but only moving forward, constantly moving forward. There is hope to fight with the future through their own efforts. It is not difficult to understand English and Chinese in the use of “before” and “after”. Allegations of past and future are to adopt the concept of different ideas. Thus, “punishment as a deterrent,” in English should be: Learn from the past mistakes to avoid future ones.Life in the United States is fast-paced. There are fast food restaurants, overnight delivery services, shuttle services, instant cash machines, fast weight loss plans, and even instant minute rice. Avidly following such sayings as, “The early bird gets the worm.” and, “First come, first served.” North Americans even have their meals in an efficient manner. Microwaves help make their early breakfasts, lunches, and five-oclock dinners.Americans, by contrast, rarely look back but all look to the future, so future Orientation is their important value. Americans, generally do not pay attention to other peoples history and tradition. Equal opportunity for all, history is insignificant. If you work hard, you can be successful, the American dream is mammoth. They think the future is manageable , or at least can be under their control. The present is just to prepare a better future. It is generally considered
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