英语本科毕业论文英语习语非稳定性结构特征研究

本科毕业论文 英语习语非稳定性结构特征研究学生姓名： 学生学号： 200310621091 院（系）： 外国语学院 年级专业： 2003级英语本科5班 指导教师： 二七年六月Study on Instability Structure of English IdiomsFan DexiUnder the Supervision ofHe XuedeSchool of Foreign Languages and CulturesPanzhihua UniversityMay, 2007ContentsAbstract.IKey Words.I摘要.II关键词.IIIntroduction.1I. Grammatical Change.3A. Tenses and Aspects.3B. Number.3C. Case.4D. Adjectives and Adverb.4II. Lexical Change.4A. Replacement.4B. Addition.5C. Deletion.5D. Position-shifting.6E. Shortening.6F. Dismembering.7III. Semantic Change.7 A. Semantic Unity.7B. Figurativeness.8C. Peculiarity.9D. Semantic Change Caused by Structural Change.9Conclusion.11Acknowledgements.12Bibliography.13AbstractEnglish also has many idioms as other languages. Usually, Structural stability and semantic unity are considered as the two characters of English idioms. And the elements of English idioms can not change a little even an article. That is to say we cant change the elements and the word order of English idioms, and cant delete any component of it and cannot add any words to an English idiom. However, in the specific context, the structure of idiom is not always stable. In this paper the author thinks that there still exists some grammatical change such as plural form of nouns;-ed and ing form of verbs; the third person form of verbs; genitive form of nouns; comparative and superlative forms of adjective and adverbs. As to lexical change, we can add some elements to some idioms, delete some elements of the idioms, and we can change the order of the elements of the idiom and we can dismember the elements of the idioms. Meanwhile, the meaning of idioms can also change because the grammatical and lexical change. This research can help the learners cognize, master and employ the idioms properly.Key WordsEnglish idioms; instability structure; grammatical change; lexical change; semantic change.摘 要同其它发达语言一样，英语也拥有大量习语。习惯认为英语习语具有结构的稳定性和语义的整体性两大特征, 也就是说习语的结构是固定不变的, 其具体表现在构成成分间的不可替代、顺序不能颠倒或改变、不能删除或添加等词法上的稳定性以及语法上的不可分析性。但在具体语境中，英语习语的结构并非不可变化，具体表现在名词的复数形式, 动词的三人称单数形式, 动词的现在分词与动名词形式, 名词的所有格形式，形容词与副词的比较级和最高级形式等方面的语法变化以及构成成分的替代、添加、删除、位移、缩短和分散等方面的词法变化。由于习语在词法和语法上的变化, 就会或多或少地导致习语在语义上的变化。因而作者认为英语习语又具有非稳定性的一面。通过对习语结构变化的具体分析，有利于学习者更加准确的认知英语习语、掌握英语习语和应用英语习语。关键词英语习语;非稳定性结构;语法变化;词法变化;语义变化IntroductionLike many other languages, English language also has a large number of idioms. English idioms are composed of fixed phrases and short sentences. English idioms can be defined as an expression established in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meaning of its elements (WNWD:1123).Usually, Structural stability and semantic unity are considered as the two characters of English idioms. That is to say, the structure of English idioms can not change their any elements even an article. In general condition, we cant change the word and the word order of English idioms. These means we cant delete any element of English idioms and we cannot add any word to it. Meanwhile we cant analyze the grammatical feature of it. However, in the special context, the author thinks that the structure of idiom is not always stable. According to Saussure, of the relationship elements in any structure are either Syntagmatic or Paradigmatic. Idiom is a kind of structure which has special meaning, and its element also has a kind of special Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relationship (Hu, 2001). According to syntagmatic and paradigmatic the addition and deletion of the individual in an aggregation can only cause the addition and deletion of the quantity of it and cannot affect the quality. Meanwhile each individual can be replaced one another. According to this we can change the elements of idiom in a small amount (Xu, 1983). Xu(1983)also pointed out in an aggregation the individuals meaning is not preserved, so in a specific sentence we can add or delete some words and the meaning will not change. This means that in an idiom we can add or delete some elements and the meaning keeps unchangeable. Chomsky said that in a structure any element can move its place or move in some manner if the certain condition is satisfied (Hu, 2001). This is his famous Move rule in his transformational genitive grammar. It also means that the elements in an idiom can be dismembered as long as the relative condition is satisfied. So the English idiom still exists some grammatical change such as plural form of the nouns; -ed and ing form of the verbs; the third person singular form s of the verbs; genitive form of the nouns; comparative and superlative forms of the adjectives and adverbs. As to lexical change, we can add some elements to some idioms, delete some elements of the idioms, and we can change the order of the elements of the idiom and we can dismember the elements of the idioms. Meanwhile, the meaning of idioms can also change because the grammatical and lexical change. This research can help the learner cognize, master and employ the idioms properly. A. Reasons of Change:Because language is a living thing, living things grow and change, so does language. Present-day English is also growing and changing. Many hundreds of English idioms have core down to us. Today English gives rise to a great number of idiomatic expressions. These are expressions being to the category of idioms. They can appear in a colloquial style, or in a formal style or even in slang. Because of so, people often need addition and adjustment to some idioms for the purposes of rhetoric so as to reflect emotional co lour and give prominence to gist. In addition, the contextual needs and the communicative needs, also cause the change of English idiom structure.B. Importance of Study:English idioms form an essential part in the general vocabulary in English. The general tendencies of present-day English are towards more idiomatic usages. Many hundreds of idioms are now accepted not only in spoken English but also in written English. Idioms reflect the environment, life, history and culture of the native speakers and are closely associated with their inner spirit and feeling. So it is a worthwhile research.At the same time, study on instability of English idioms can help learners to cognize, master and employ English idioms easily and properly.I. Grammatical ChangeGrammatical change refers to adding inflectional affixes to the end of word to indicate grammatical relationships. Modern English is an analytic language. Most endings are lost, leaving us only a few inflectional affixes. There is the regular plural suffix s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios, potatoes. The same forms s (-es) can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular, e.g. like-likes, work- works, go-goes. The form s is another one used to indicate the possessive case of nouns such as the childrens library, the mans role, a waitresss voice, the mother-in-laws complaints. We have also the suffixes er, -est which are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative, e.g. happy-happier-happiest, hard -harder-hardest. Apart form these, these is the past tense marker ed as mentioned above, and the ing form added to verbs to form present participles or gerunds. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable, which makes English one of the easiest languages to learn (Zhang, 1997)A. Tenses and AspectsThe change of the verb affix refers to the tense and aspects mainly include the third single person, the past tense, past participle, present participle, gerund etc. To more exactly, here we take make ones friends a laughing stock as an example：He makes his friends a laughing stock.He made his friends a laughing stock.He is making his friends a laughing stock.He has made his friends a laughing stock.Making his friends a laughing stock is his deed.B. NumberIn English the changing of the number mainly refers to the changing of the plural from of the noun plural，For example:A lame duckthe lame ducksC. CaseThe possessive case of nouns can be transferred into noun endocentric structure with post-modifier. For example:Lie near sbs heart lie near the heart of sb Fortunes wheel wheel of fortune D. Adjectives and AdverbThe change of adjective and adverb mainly refers to the comparative degree and superlative degree of the adjectives and adverbs. For example:She had a hard heart, but he had a harder heart. She had a hard heart, but he had a hardest heart in their group. IILexical change Idioms are structurally fixed, and as a rule one is not supposed to change any element in idiomatic. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making slight changes for rhetorical effect. A. ReplacementThe replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole: In many cases one noun can be substituted for another without affecting the meaning of the whole, the substitutable words being usually synonyms. For example:Come into blossom/flower (Zhang, 2004);Make a bolt/dash for;Take to bits/pieces;Take pains/trouble over;Rise from the dead/grave (Zhang, 2004);In some idioms, a constituent may be replaced by a word of the same part of speech, resulting in synonymous or antonymous idioms. (1) Verb, e.g. make cut a figure, make pull off a great coup, catch get, seize, or take hold of, keep break ones word, take lose heart. (2) Noun, e.g. down in the bushes mouth, a drop in the ocean bucket, on the increase decrease, in the know dark. (3) Adjectives, e.g. in good high, fine, full father, by all no means, take long short views, on a large big, vast scale. (4) Article, pronoun, numeral, e.g. flea in ones the ear, in a some sort, come off ones the high, lay a ones course, take thirteen nineteen to the dozen.(5) Adverb or preposition, e.g. drop in over, by, by in the lump, turn on off, go with against the stream, give handle for to.B. AdditionIn some idioms, some constituents can be added or deleted, which does not affect the meaning of the idioms. For example: Be very, fairly well off,Deal someone a severe, heart blow,Behind the bars, For all night, Form the bottom of ones heart,As broad ad it is long,For good and all Bear ones cross-bear a terrible, heavy cross (Zhang, 2004) Keep an eye on- keep a careful, professional, sharp, watchful eye on Play it safe -play it very safeTake pains-take great, endless painsC. DeletionIn English idioms, some elements, especially articles can be deleted. For example:Play it very safe- play it safe Stand ones trial for- Stand ones trial When in Rome, do as the Romans do- When in Rome, do as the RomansAt the outs (1968 WNWD) - at outs (1982 COD);Pull the wires (1964 COD) - pull wires (1979 CDOEL)Hit the (right) nail on the head (1976 COD) -hit the nail on the head (1979 CDOEL);Talk (cold) turkey (1965 COD) -talk turkey (1982 COD) (Zhang, 2004);D. Position-shiftingThe positions of certain constituents in some idioms can be shifted without any change in meaning. For example:Day and night =night and day,Young and old =old and young,Lie near sbs heart =lie near the heart of sb, Pin back sbs ears =pin sbs ears back, Fortunes wheel = wheel of fortune, Turn the radio up = turn up the radio,Play sb a trick = play a trick on sb, Do sb a favor=do a favor for sb Hammer and tongs=tongs and hammerVague and wooly=wooly and vagueReally and truly=truly and reallyAs and when=when and asPick and choose=choose and pickE. ShorteningThis occasionally occurs in proverbs and saying, where only a part of them is used instead of the whole. For example:The last straw = It is the last straw that breaks the camels back.Velvet paws=velvet paws hide sharp clawsJack of all trades=Jack of all trades and master of noneI dont think the walls need re-painting; but needs must, I suppose, if Im to get any peace.(ODCIE)Needs must is part of Needs must when the devil drives, which means circumstances make it necessary or unavoidable.“Im a bit of a rolling stone down the avenues of medicine, he explained.” -Doctor in Love (Zhang, 1999)A rolling stone comes form a rolling stone gathers no moss, meaning a person who moves a lot from place to place, form job to job does not accumulate property, real friends, or social tiesF. DismemberingIt is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces, an unusual case of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve special effect. For example:“The leopard! But he did change them, Dinny.”“He did not, Aunite: he had no spots to change.”-Galsworthy (Zhang, 1999)In the dialogue, the idioms the leopard never changes his spots is used humorously. However, the original idiom is broken up and is hardly recognizable unless we put pieces together.“Conway would have preferred to talk in Chinese, but so far he had not let it be known that he spoke any Eastern tongue; he felt it might be a useful card up his sleeve.”-J.Hitton (Zhang, 1997)Be a useful card up his sleeve is a personal variant of have a card up ones sleeve. It is well used here to indicate that Conway is a person of wisdom, knowing how to take the advantage of the situation and manipulate people.“Generally speaking, he is a misfit, a round peg in the squarest of holes.-ObserverA round peg in the squarest of holes is based on the idiom of a square peg in a round hole, here deliberately transformed by the author to emphasis the point that the person in question is not in the least fit for the job.III. Semantic ChangeFor the semantic features of the idioms; we can study this in the following ways. A. Semantic UnityBeing phrases or sentences, idioms each consist of more than one word, but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idiom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity, i.e. their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. Like wise, the part of speech of each element is no longer important. Quite often the idiom functions as one world. For instance, till the cows come home, which comprises a conjunction till, an article the, a noun cow, a verb come and an adverb home, means forever and functions as an adverb, thus replaceable by the word forever. The same can be said of keep in mind (remember), take off (imitate), to no avail (useless), like a breeze (easily) and so on (Zhang, 1999). The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom. Many idioms are semantically inexplicable. For example, how do you do is a common form of greeting used by people when they first meet. Literally it means in what way do you do things, which is far from its idiomatic usage. From this we can know that the key to master the idiom is to master its features not each words meaning. Here we can have more examples; He can not tell the manager off, so he takes it out on the office boy. In the sentence tell off and take it out on sb are two idioms their meaning are different in the usual sentence. In addition, some idiom often borrows from some culture and custom that will be more different to understand it in the usual ways. Semantic unity is an important feature in the understanding of idioms.B. FigurativenessA well-known language phenomenon or word may have many comparison meanings in the specific condition, especially the metaphor. English idiom belongs to this type naturally; many idioms have the metaphor meanings, i.e. hat in hand, beat about the bush, and bum the candle at bath ends and so on. Although the meaning of these idioms mainly depend on the unity, we can guess the meaning from its literal. This can make us have some imagination. Other examples: to wash ones dirty linen in public, to carry coals to Newcastle even Homer sometimes nods. The literal meaning of these idioms are easy understood, all of these meanings have some connection with its real ones if we do some discursion it will be very clear. Suchidioms are very popular in our daily life i.e. hit the nail on the head, a storm in a cup, fine feathers make fine birds, keep ones chin up, wash ones off something, make ones hair stand on end. For the meaning of an idiom, we had better put it in the specific sentence.C. PeculiarityPeculiarity can be found in two conditions. One is un- logicality; many idioms in English either from the word formation or the semantic are far away from the logicality. Since we use these meanings in many years, it will not change. Such as face the music means accept the criticism or blame, not escape the obligation. Weather the word formation or the meaning of the word are different from its logically meaning. We have more examples like thi