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Click to edit Master title style,Click to edit Master text styles,Second Level,Third Level,Fourth Level,Fifth Level,寡头,Chapter 16,不完全竞争,不完全竞争是指这样一种市场结构,它处于完全竞争与完全垄断之间。,不完全竞争,不完全竞争包括这样一些产业,在这些产业中企业有一些竞争者,但竞争者并没有多到使自己成为价格的接受者。,不完全竞争市场的种类,寡头,只有少数卖者,每个卖者向市场提供与其它卖者相似或相同的产品。,垄断性竞争,存在许多企业,出售的产品相似但不相同。,四种市场结构,垄断,寡头,垄断竞争,完全竞争,自来水,有线电视,网球,石油,小说书,电影,小麦,牛奶,公司的数量,?,产品种类,?,许多企业,一家企业,少数,企业,差异化产品,相同产品,只有少数几个卖者的市场,由于只有几个卖者,因此寡头市场的关键特征是合作与利己之间的冲突。,寡头市场的特征,少数卖者提供相似或相同的产品,企业相互依存,合作难以为继,企业像垄断者一样,只生产少量产量以致价格在边际成本之上。,双寡头的例子,双寡头是只有两家卖主的寡头市场,它是最简单的寡头垄断,但面临的问题与多寡头是相同的。,双寡头例子:水的需求表,双寡头的例子,:,价格与数量的确定,假如在完全竞争市场,水的价格将被确定在边际成本,MC=0,的地方。,P = MC = $0,Q = 120,加仑,假如在垄断市场,价格与数量将会被确定在使利润最大化的地方。,P = $60,Q = 60,加仑,A Duopoly Example: Price andQuantity Supplied,对社会来说,最有效的数量是,120,加仑水,而垄断市场只供应,60,加仑的水。,那么,寡头市场的结果如何呢?,竞争,垄断,和卡特尔,双寡头可以达成协议,形成与垄断一样的结果。,勾结,两个企业可以就生产数量与价格达成协议,卡特尔,两家企业联合起来达成一致行为。,Competition, Monopolies, and Cartels,尽管寡头希望形成卡特尔并赚到垄断利润,但这往往是不可能的。反托拉斯法把禁止寡头之间的显性协定作为公共政策的关键。卡特尔成员之间对如何瓜分利润的争斗也使他们彼此很难达成协议。,寡头均衡,纳什均衡(,Nash equilibrium,)是相互作用的经济主体在假定其他主体所选择的策略为既定时,选择自己的最优策略的状态,在这种状态中,他们都没有改变决策的动机。,(,电影,美丽心灵,记录了纳什激动人心的一生)。,The Equilibrium for an Oligopoly,寡头企业单独地选择利润最大化的产量时,他们生产的产量大于垄断但小于竞争的产量水平,寡头价格低于垄断价格但高于竞争价格。,The Equilibrium for an Oligopoly,前例中,寡头企业按垄断产量协议生产,各生产,30,加仑,价格为,60,,但如果企业,1,多生产,10,加仑,他假定企业,2,产量不变,则价格变为,50,,利润为,2000,,大于原来的,1800,,两者最后会都生产,40,加仑,价格为,40,,各获得利润,1600,。单个企业这时并没有增加产量到,50,加仑的冲动,因为多生产利润为,1500,。,寡头均衡的总结,寡头企业的逐利可能产生如下结果:,共同生产的产量大于垄断市场的产量,但小于竞争市场的产量。,市场价格低于垄断价格但大于竞争市场价格。,总利润小于垄断市场的利润。,A Duopoly Example: Demand Schedule for Water,寡头数量如何影响市场结果,当卖者数量增加时,价格与数量受到何种影响(假定达成卡特尔的协议化为泡影,各自独立决策):,产量效应,:,由于价格高于边际成本,在现行价格上多销售,1,加仑水将增加利润。,价格效应:提高产量将降低价格,由此降低所有销售单位所获得的利润。,如果产量效应大于价格效应,生产者将增加产量,如果价格效应大于产量效应,生产者就不会再增加产量,每个寡头在假定其他人产量不变时,一直增加生产,直到两种效应完全平衡为止。,How the Size of an Oligopoly Affects the Market Outcome,当寡头市场卖者的数量增加时,寡头垄断市场看上去越来越像竞争市场。单个企业对价格的影响越来越小,价格效应越来越弱。当只有产量效应时,只要价格高于边际成本,企业就生产。,因为,当卖者数量增加时,寡头市场的价格会越来越接近边际成本,生产量越来越接近于社会有效率的水平。,博弈论与合作经济学,博弈论(,Game theory,)研究人们在策略性环境中的策略性决策与行为。,策略性环境是指每个人进行的决策和采取的行动都会对其他人产生影响。,策略性决策(,Strategic decisions,)是指每个人要根据其他人的可能反应来决定自己的决策和行动。,Game Theory and the Economics of Cooperation,在寡头垄断市场,由于企业的数量很少,因此每个企业都需要进行策略性的决策和行动。,每个企业都知道,它的利润不仅取决于他自己生产多少,而且还取决于其他企业生产多少。,囚徒困境,囚徒困境博弈说明了为什么合作是困难的。,即使在合作使所有人状况都变好时,人们在生活中也往往不能相互合作。,The Prisoners Dilemma,Bonnie,策略,坦白,保持沉默,坦白,保持沉默,Clyde,的策略,8 years,8 years,20 years,1 year,获得自由,20 years,1 year,Clyde goes free,The Prisoners Dilemma,占优策略(,dominant strategy,),是指无论其他参与者选择什么策略,对一个参与者都是最优的策略。,The Prisoners Dilemma,保持合作是困难的,因为合作并不符合个人的最大利益,从个人的角度来看,合作是不理性的。,作为囚徒困境的寡头,Jack,的策略,高产量,40,加仑,低产量,30,加仑,高产量,40,加仑,低产量,30,加仑,Jill,的策略,1600,1600,1500,1800,2000,1500,1800,2000,作为囚徒困境的寡头,Iraqs Decision,High Production,Low Production,High Production,Low Production,Irans Decision,Iran gets,$40 billion,Iraq gets,$40 billion,Iraq gets,$30 billion,Iraq gets,$50 billion,Iraq gets $60 billion,Iran gets,$30 billion,Iran gets,$50 billion,Iran gets $60 billion,囚徒困境中的寡头,自利使垄断企业保持合作的结果非常困难,因为合作需要低产量、高价格,由此获得垄断利润而瓜分,假如对方不提高产量,自己提高,将增加利润,对方利润减少,每个人当然担心别人提高产量,自己受损,因而合作难以维持。,军备竞赛,美国,军备,裁军,军备,裁军,苏联,USSR at risk,U.S. at risk,U.S. at risk and weak,U.S. safe,U.S. safe and powerful,USSR at risk and weak,USSR safe,USSR safe and powerful,广告博弈,Marlboros Decision,Advertise,Dont Advertise,Advertise,Dont Advertise,Camels Decision,Camel gets $3 billion profit,Marlboro gets $3 billion profit,Marlboro gets $2 billion profit,Marlboro gets $4 billion profit,Marlboro gets $5 billion profit,Camel gets $2 billion profit,Camel gets $4 billion profit,Camel gets $5 billion profit,公共资源博弈,Exxons Decision,Drill Two Wells,Drill One Well,Drill Two Wells,Drill One Well,Arcos Decision,Arco gets $4 million profit,Exxon gets $4 million profit,Exxon gets $3 million profit,Exxon gets $5 million profit,Exxon gets $6 million profit,Arco gets $3 million profit,Arco gets $5 million profit,Arco gets $6 million profit,为什么人们有时能够合作,在重复博弈中,企业更在意合作所产生的未来利润,而非通过一次欺骗在一次交易中的获益。,Jack and Jills Oligopoly Game,Jacks Decision,Sell 40 gallons,Sell 30 gallons,Sell 40 gallons,Sell 30 gallons,Jills Decision,Jill gets $1,600 profit,Jack gets $1,600 profit,Jack gets $1,500 profit,Jack gets $1,800 profit,Jack gets $2,000 profit,Jill gets $1,500 profit,Jill gets $1,800 profit,Jill gets $2,000 profit,针对寡头的公共政策,从社会整体来看,寡头之间的合作是不合意的,因为它使产量太低而价格太高。,贸易限制与反托拉斯法,反托拉斯法使限制贸易或试图垄断市场成为非法。,1890,年的,谢尔曼法,1914,年的,克莱顿法,贸易限制与反托拉斯法,谢尔曼法,规定:任何以反托拉斯或其他形式进行的兼并或共谋,任何限制州际或国际的贸易或商业活动的合同,均属非法,任何人垄断或企图垄断,或同其他个人或多人联合或共谋垄断州际或国际的一部分商业和贸易的,均应认为是犯罪。,克莱顿法,修正和加强了,谢尔曼法,,禁止不公平竞争,宣布导致削弱竞争或造成垄断的不正当做法为非法。这些不正当的做法包括价格歧视、排他性或限制性契约、公司相互持有股票和董事会成员相互兼任。,关于反托拉斯政策的争论,反托拉斯法应该禁止哪一种行为?价格勾结协议明显是非法的,应该禁止,而有些行为具有潜在反竞争的效果,应该谴责而不被允许,:,转售价格维持,掠夺性定价,捆绑销售,Resale Price Maintenance,转售价格维持,【Resale price maintenance,(or,fair trade,) 】,:供应商要求零售商向顾客收取一特定的价格。,认为它是反映竞争的理由:禁止了零售商的价格竞争,认为它没有反竞争的理由:销售商可以用批发价来实现市场势力,出售价格低的零售商反可能是个卡特尔,存在其他合理的目标。,Predatory Pricing,掠夺性定价(,Predatory pricing,)大企业将产品价格定的很低,以将竞争者赶出市场。,有两个理由怀疑它是反竞争的:,自己可能受到更大损失。,如何区分哪一种降价是有利消费者的,哪一种降价是掠夺性的?,Tying,捆绑销售(,Tying,)企业以单一价格销售两种(或更多)商品,而不是将它们单独出售。,不具有反竞争的理由:,可能没有超过支付单个商品的支付意愿;,可能恰好接近于两个商品的总支付意愿,避免了消费者只购买单个商品的情况(是价格歧视的一种形式)。,Summary,Oligopolists,maximize their total profits by forming a cartel and acting like a monopolist.,If,oligopolists,make decisions about production levels individually, the result is a greater quantity and a lower price than under the monopoly outcome.,Summary,The prisoners dilemma shows that self-interest can prevent people from maintaining cooperation, even when cooperation is in their mutual self-interest.,The logic of the prisoners dilemma applies in many situations, including oligopolies.,Summary,Policymakers use the antitrust laws to prevent oligopolies from engaging in behavior that reduces competition.,Graphical Review,The Four Types of Market Structure,Monopoly,Oligopoly,Monopolistic Competition,Perfect Competition,Tap water,Cable TV,Tennis balls,Crude oil,Novels,Movies,Wheat,Milk,Number of Firms?,Type of Products?,Many firms,One firm,Few firms,Differentiated products,Identical products,The Prisoners Dilemma,Bonnies,Decision,Confess,Remain Silent,Confess,Remain Silent,Clydes Decision,Clyde gets,8 years,Bonnie gets,8 years,Bonnie gets,20 years,Bonnie gets,1 year,Bonnie goes free,Clyde gets,20 years,Clyde gets,1 year,Clyde goes free,Oligopolies as a Prisoners Dilemma,Iraqs Decision,High Production,Low Production,High Production,Low Production,Irans Decision,Iran gets,$40 billion,Iraq gets,$40 billion,Iraq gets,$30 billion,Iraq gets,$50 billion,Iraq gets $60 billion,Iran gets,$30 billion,Iran gets,$50 billion,Iran gets $60 billion,An Arms-Race Game,Decision of the United States (U.S.),Arm,Disarm,Arm,Disarm,Decision of the Soviet Union (USSR),USSR at risk,U.S. at risk,U.S. at risk and weak,U.S. safe,U.S. safe and powerful,USSR at risk and weak,USSR safe,USSR safe and powerful,An Advertising Game,Marlboros Decision,Advertise,Dont Advertise,Advertise,Dont Advertise,Camels Decision,Camel gets $3 billion profit,Marlboro gets $3 billion profit,Marlboro gets $2 billion profit,Marlboro gets $4 billion profit,Marlboro gets $5 billion profit,Camel gets $2 billion profit,Camel gets $4 billion profit,Camel gets $5 billion profit,A Common-Resources Game,Exxons Decision,Drill Two Wells,Drill One Well,Drill Two Wells,Drill One Well,Arcos Decision,Arco gets $4 million profit,Exxon gets $4 million profit,Exxon gets $3 million profit,Exxon gets $5 million profit,Exxon gets $6 million profit,Arco gets $3 million profit,Arco gets $5 million profit,Arco gets $6 million profit,Jack and Jills Oligopoly Game,Jacks Decision,Sell 40 gallons,Sell 30 gallons,Sell 40 gallons,Sell 30 gallons,Jills Decision,Jill gets $1,600 profit,Jack gets $1,600 profit,Jack gets $1,500 profit,Jack gets $1,800 profit,Jack gets $2,000 profit,Jill gets $1,500 profit,Jill gets $1,800 profit,Jill gets $2,000 profit,
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