lecture 2,3 and 4

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,English Lexicology(II),*,Chapter 2 Word Formation,2.1 Morphemes,2.2 Derivation,2.3 Conversion,2.4 Compounding,2.1 Morphemes,2.1.1 Morphemes,2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,2.1.3 Allomorphs,2.1.1 Morphemes,The definition of a morpheme,The morpheme(,词素,) is,the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.,A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into smaller meaningful units.,Words are composed of morphemes,. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes.,3,English Lexicology(II),2.1.1 Morphemes,The definition of a morpheme,Example,One morpheme: nation,Two morphemes: nation-al,Three morphemes: nation-al-,ize,Four morphemes: de-nation-al-,ize,4,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Free morphemes(,自由词素,),Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Therefore, we might as well say that free morphemes are content morphemes or,free roots(,自由词根,).,man, earth, wind, faith, red, write.,5,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Bound Morphemes(,粘着词素,),Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have,attached meaning,(,un-kind, hope-,ful,) or,grammatical meaning,(,cat-s, slow-,ly, walk-,ing, call-ed,). They are also called grammatical morphemes.,6,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Types of bound morphemes,Bound roots(,粘着词根,):,A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. For example:,dict,- conveys the meaning of say or speak-,contradict, predict, contradiction, prediction, dictate, diction, dictionary.,dur,-:,during, duration, durable, endure,7,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Types of bound morphemes,Affixes(,词缀,):,Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups:,inflectional,and,derivational,affixes.,8,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Inflectional affixes(,曲折词缀,),Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. For example:,cat,s, walk,ed, walk,ing, John,s,book,Derivational affixes(,派生词缀,),Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes,Prefixes(,前缀,),Suffixes(,后缀,),9,English Lexicology(II),2.1.2 Types of Morphemes,Diagram of morphemes,Morphemes,Free,Bound,Bound root,Affixes,Inflectional,Derivational,Prefix,Suffix,10,English Lexicology(II),2.1.3 Allomorphs,An allomorph(,词素变体,) is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.,For example:,The morpheme of plurality -s: /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/; /z/ after /d, b, g, l/; /,iz,/ after /s, z, /,go: went, gone,11,English Lexicology(II),2.1.3 Allomorphs,-,ion/-,tion/-sion/-ation,are the positional variants of the same suffix.,Verbs ending with the sound,/t/,usually take,ion,(as in,invent, invention,);,verds,ending with consonants other than,/t/,take,tion,(as in,describe, description,);,verbs ending in,ify,and,ize,take,ation,(as in,justify, justification; modernize, modernization,);,verbs ending in,d, -de,or,mit, take,sion,(as in,expansion, decision, omission,); there are exceptions:,attend, attention; convert, conversion,etc.,12,English Lexicology(II),2.1.3 Allomorphs,A prefix like,im,-,occurs before,p, b,or,m,(,imperfect, imbalance, immobile,); its allomorphs are,ir,-,before,r,(,irregular, irresponsible,);,il,-,before,l,(,illogical, illegal,);,in-,before all other consonants and vowels (,inflexible, incomplete,).,13,English Lexicology(II),Exercises,Decentralization,Specialize,Individualistic,Half-hearted,A man of letters,Downfall,Power-drunk,14,English Lexicology(II),Exercises,Decentralization,Specialize,Individualistic,Half-hearted,A man of letters,Downfall,Power-drunk,de-, center, -al, -,ize, -,ation,species, -al, -,ize,in-, divide, -al, -,ist, -,ic,half, heart, -ed,a, man, of, letter, -s,down, fall,power, drink, an allomorph of ed,15,English Lexicology(II),Exercises,Ecocrisis,Meaningfulness,Prediction,Inequality,understatement,Undeveloped,Downsizing,Moonscape,supernatural,16,English Lexicology(II),Exercises,Ecocrisis,Meaningfulness,Prediction,Inequality,understatement,Undeveloped,Downsizing,Moonscape,supernatural,eco-, crisis,mean, -,ing, -,ful, -ness,pre-, -,dict,-, -ion,-in, equal, -,ity,-under, state, -,ment,-un, develop, -ed,down, size, -,ing,moon, -,scape,-super, nature, -al,17,English Lexicology(II),2.2 Derivation,2.2.1 General Remarks,2.2.2,Prefixation,2.2.3 Suffixation,2.2.1,General Remarks,The three major processes,affixation or derivation (14.3%),Prefixation,suffixation,conversion (10.3%),composition or compounding (25%),19,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,The definition of,prefixation,Prefixation,is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes,Non-class-changing prefixes:,natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair,Class-changing prefixes:,force-enforce, danger-endanger, form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-,intercollege,20,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,The classification of prefixes,In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems,more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning,into the following ten categories:,21,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,1) Negative prefixes,a-/an-,amoral, asexual, atheism,anacid, anarchy,dis,-,dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree,in-,Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable, illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular,non-,nonviolent, non-cooperation,nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic,un-,uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest,22,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,Order,Literate,Symmetry,Governmental,Relevant,Productive,Believable,Vulnerable,Sane,Related,Aligned,Mature,Disorder,Illiterate,Asymmetry,Nongovernmental,Irrelevant,Unproductive,Unbelievable,Invulnerable,Insane,Unrelated,Nonaligned,Immature,23,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,2),Reversative,or privative,de-,defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed, denationalize,un-,undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask,dis,-,disconnect, dishearten, disinterested,24,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,Centralize,Plane,Infect,Zip,Regulate,Possess,Pollute,Decentralize,Deplane,Disinfect,Unzip,Deregulate,Dispossess,Depollute,25,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,3) Pejorative prefixes,mis,-,misguide, misapplication, misbehavior,mischoice, misgiving,mal-,maladjustment,maldigestion, malfunction,maldevelopment,pseudo-,pseudonym, pseudoscience,pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend,26,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,2) Prefixes of degree or size,hyper-,hyperactive, hypercritical,hyperaggressive,hypercautious,ultra-,ultramodern,ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative,mini-,minibus,minicamera, miniskirt,out-,outdo, outgrown, outlive,over-,overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden,under-,underdeveloped,underpopulation, undergraduate,super-,supermarket, superpower, superstar,sub-,subadult, subtitle,subbreed,subatom,27,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,Computer,Critical,Conscious,Natural,Sensitive,Simple,Number,Statement,culture,Minicomputer,Ultracritic,/hypercritic,Subconscious,Supernatural,Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive,Oversimple,Outnumber,Understatement,Subculture,28,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,3) Prefixes of orientation and attitude,co-,Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation,counter-,Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure,anti-,anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody,pro-,(,支持，赞成）,pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-student, proslavery,29,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,4) Locative prefixes,fore-,forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword,inter-,international, intergovernmental, intertwine, interdisciplinary,intercollege,trans-,transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant,tele,-,telephone, telegram, telecommunication,30,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,View,Conference,Continental,Ground,Cast,Specific,Racial,Shore,Interview,teleconference,Intercontinental,Foreground,Telecast,Transpecific,Transracial,Foreshore,31,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,5) Prefixes of time and order,ex-,ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict,fore-,foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn,pre-,premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital,post-,post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral,32,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,8) Number prefixes,uni,-/mono-,unilateral,unicell,unicircuit,unicolor, unicycle,unidimensional, uniform,unipolar, monoxide,monocrystal, monogamy, monologue,bi-/,di,-,bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy, disyllable,tri-,triangular,triatomic,trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual,multi-/poly-,multipurpose,multipolar,multiangular, multilingual, polyatomic,polycrystal, polygamy,semi-,semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,semicolony, semiautomatic,33,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,Lingual,Lateral,Polar,Dimensional,Unilingual, bilingual, trilingual, multilingual,Unilateral, bilateral, trilateral, multilateral,Unipolar, bipolar,tripolar,multipolar,Unidimensional,bidimensional, tridimensional (three-dimensional), multidimensional,34,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,9),Conversion prefixes,a-,aloud, asleep, aglow, awash,be-,belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch,en-,endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower,35,English Lexicology(II),2.2.2,Prefixation,10),Miscellaneous prefixes,Extra-,Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial,Neo-,Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism, Neolithic,Pan-,(,泛）,Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-,Africanism,.,36,English Lexicology(II),2.2.4 Suffixation,The definition of suffixation,Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only,a small semantic role, their primary function being to,change the grammatical function,of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. However, they may also add attached meaning to the stem.,37,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,The classification of suffixes,Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into,1) noun suffixes,2) adjective suffixes,3) adverb suffixes,2) verb suffixes,38,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1),Noun suffixes,Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the following five kinds.,Denominal,nouns (concrete or abstract),Deverbal,nouns,De-adjectival nouns,Noun and adjective suffixes,39,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1),Noun suffixes,Denominal,nouns (concrete),-,eer,auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, racketeer,-,er,Londoner, teenager, villager,-,ess,actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness,-let,booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet,40,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1),Noun suffixes,Denominal,nouns (abstract),-,age,baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage,-,dom,freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom,-,ery/-ry,drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery,-ism,idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism,-ship,dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship,-,ocrasy,aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy,-hood,boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood,-,ful,handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful,41,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1) Noun suffixes,Deverbal,nouns,-,ant,contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant,-,ee,interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee,-,er,/-or,driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator, supervisor, actor, window-shopper,-,ation,foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation,-,ing,building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing,-al,refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal,-,ment,amazement, arrangement, movement, government,-,age,breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage,42,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1),Noun suffixes,De-adjectival nouns,-,ity,diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility, actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability,-,ness,accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness, happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness, thickness, goodness,43,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,1) Noun suffixes,Nouns and adjective suffixes,-,ese,Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese,officialese, journalese,-(,i)an,Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean, Indonesian, Russian,-,ist,communist, pianist, specialist, socialist,44,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,2),Adjective Suffixes,Denominal,suffixes,-,ed,dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored,-,ful,delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful,-,ish,childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish,-,less,homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless,-,like,childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike,-,ly,friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly,-,y,milky, sandy, hairy, meaty,45,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,2),Adjective Suffixes,Denominal,suffixes,-,ic,(-,atic,),ethnic, economic, historic, problematic,-,ous,(-,ious,-,eous,),ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous, erroneous, courteous,-,al (-,ial, -,ical,),accidental, professional, residential, musical, philosophical,46,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,2),Adjective Suffixes,Deverbal,suffixes,-,able (-,ible,-,uble,),debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable, permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble,-,ive,(-,ative,-,sive,),attractive, reflective, productive, negative, decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive, explosive, decisive,47,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,3),Adverb Suffixes,-,ly,smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally,-,ward(s),downward, eastward, homeward, forward,-,wise,clockwise, lengthwise,weatherwise,educationwise,taxwise, moneywise,48,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,2) Verb suffixes,-ate,Originate, hyphenate,-,en,Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten,-,ify,Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify,-,ize(-ise,),Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize, specialize,49,English Lexicology(II),2.2.3 Suffixation,False,Sterile,Intense,Fat,Horror,Memory,Apology,Falsify,Sterilize,Intensify,Fatten,Horrify,Memorize,Apologize,50,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,The definition of conversion,Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called,zero derivation(,零位派生,),.,51,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Major types of conversion,Noun-verb conversion,Verb-noun conversion,Adjective-noun conversion,52,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Noun-verb conversion,He,elbowed,his way through the crowd.,Problems,snowballed,by the hour.,The newspaper,headlined,his long record of accomplishments.,Kissinger got the plans and,helicoptered,to Camp David.,53,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Abuse,Advice,House,Use,Belief,Grief,Shelf,mouth,Abuse,Advise,House,Use,Believe,Grieve,Shelve,Mouth,Changes of pronunciation and spelling,54,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Verb-noun conversion,He was admitted to the university after a three-year,wait,.,This little restaurant is quite a,find,.,It is a good,buy,.,He took a close,look,at the machine.,doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply, divide,55,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Verb-noun conversion,Phrasal verb-noun conversion,Right branching,Left branching,Break down,Breakdown,Break out,Outbreak,Pick up,Pick-up,Spill over,Overspill,Take over,Take-over,Start up,Upstart,Get together,Get-together,Put in,Input,Break through,Breakthrough,Keep up,upkeep,56,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Conflict,Abstract,Contrast,Decrease,Discount,Export,Rebel,Permit,Progress,Protest,Transfer,Transplant,Survey,Torment,Shift of stress,57,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Adjective-noun conversion,Partial conversion,Complete conversion,58,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Adjective-noun conversion,Partial conversion,Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: t,he deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded,Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in ,sh, -se, -,ch,):,the English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch,Denoting a quality in the abstract:,a strong dislike for the sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime to the ridiculous,Denoting a single person (converted from participles):,the accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned,59,English Lexicology(II),2.3 Conversion,Adjective-noun conversion,Complete conversion,A,native, two natives, a returned native,He is a,natural,for the job.,Tom is one of our,regulars, he comes in for a drink about this time every night.,To them she is not a brusque,crazy, but appropriately passionate.,They are the,creatives,in the advertising department.,60,English Lexicology(II),2.4 Compounding,The definition of compounding,Composition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit,a compound word,. It is a common device which has been productive at every period of the English language. Today,the largest number of new words are formed by compounding,.,61,English Lexicology(II),2.4 Compounding,Forms of compounds,Solid: bedtime, honeymoon,Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning,Open: reading material, hot line,62,English Lexicology(II),Features of Compounds,Grammatically:,Not to be restricted by grammatical rules,Pickpocket; duty-bound; handpicked; low-paid; full-grown,To function as an independent unit,Hot dog; hot line; blackboards; mailboxes,Exceptions: sons-in-law; women teachers,63,English Lexicology(II),Features of Compounds,Semantically:,To have fixed meaning (,a+b,),Heart failure; jetlag; sandstorm,Not the pattern of,a+b,:,brain drain; contact lens; greenback; hangover; white lie; heavy metal,Various semantic relations:,President elect; secretary general,Compounds form figurative devices:,light-hearted; short-handed; short-sighted; snow-white; information superhighway,64,English Lexicology(II),2.4 Compounding,Types of compounds,Noun compounds,Adjective compounds,Verb compounds,65,English Lexicology(II),2.4 Compounding,Noun compounds,n+n,: mouse mat; spaceship; web page,Adj+n,: blueprint,Adv+n,: overdose,V+n,:,driveaway,Adv+v,: income,