hyponymy[(词义之间的)下义关系

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,词 汇 学,Unit Four,Word Meaning,Lectured by,zhongmin,1,I. Word Meaning,1.,A Word and Word Meaning,2.,Motivation of Words,3.,Analysis of word meaning and semantic field,II. Makeup of Word Meaning,1.,Grammatical meaning and Lexical Meaning,2.,Conceptual meaning and Associative,meaning,3.,Connotative meaning,4.,Stylistic meaning,5.,Affective meaning,6.,Collocative meaning,2,1. A Word and Its Meaning,Semantics,Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. But lexicology will focus on the lexical level. The types of meaning and sense relations such as polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,(词义之间的)下义关系,上下位关系,and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute an important part of lexicology.,1)The relation between a word and its meaning,Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect,sound, and the inner aspect,meaning.,3,2) Words and concepts,i) Words and concepts are inseparable. Concepts are embodied in words: we cannot think without words. Words are abstraction of things; a book is a book, not any particular kind of book like novel, pictorial, textbook.,ii) Words and concepts are not identical,a) Only notional(,表意的, 实义的),words reflect things. Form words are not related to any actual thing in real life. They are abstraction(,提取),of grammatical relations.,b) The same concept can be expressed by different words: underground(BrE), tube (BrE), subway (AmE), all mean the same thing. One word can also express various different concepts: “face” may signify: the front part of the head; outward appearance; the principal side of surface of anything: the front of a building, an arch, a cliff, etc.; the marked side of a playing card, watch, etc.,4,2. Words Motivation,Polysemy,(,一词多义),The word polysemy is of Greek origin (GK. polys-,many and sema-,meaning) and means as its etymology shows, a plurality of meaning.,i)Diachronic(,历时性的）,approach to polysemy,If polysemy is viewed diachronically, it is understood as the growth and development or, in general, a change in the semantic structure of the word.,e.g. table: 1) a piece of furniture; 2) the persons seated at a table (to keep the table amused); 3) (sing. only) the food put on a table, meals (to keep a good, poor table); 4) a flat slab of stone or wood used for inscriptions; 5) words out into it or written on it (the ten tables); 6) an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc. (table of contents); 7) part of machine tool on which the work is put to be operated on; 8) a level area, a plateau.,5,ii)Synchronic（,共时性的）,approach to polysemy,Synchronically we understand polysemy as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language.,Two processes lead to polysemy:,Radiation,(,词义的辐射,): a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. Each of them is independent of all the rest and may be traced back to the central signification.,“head”,Concatenation,(,词义的连锁,连接,): the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first signification by successive shifts of meaning until, in many cases, there is not a shadow of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had in it at the outset(,开始),.,“cheater”,iii)panchronical approach to polysemy,Different languages use different words to show the same meaning.,6,“head”,central meaning: part of a body,(1) top of anything: the head of a walking stick;,(2) the highest or uppermost part of a thing: of a bed;,(3) a leader: a head of state; (4) the head of coin;,(5) the source of a stream, spring: the head of the river;,(6) the hydraulic sense: fifty meters head of waters;,(7) promontory:(,海角,) Flamborough Head;,(8) an army force, a troop;,(9) a unit of counting: ten head of cattle,(10) a person or individual: quick lunches at 5$ a head;,(11) the main points (,要点,): the heads of the discourse;,(12) mental power (,才智,): use your head,7,cheater:,其原意 为“,an officer who attended to escheats”,即，看管领主的土地的官吏。后因这种人常常损公肥私成为不老实的人,(a dishonest person),，现在作“骗子”解。此义与原义已失去联系。,candidate,源自拉丁语,candidatus,(white-robbed,穿白衣的,),，原义指“穿白衣的人”,(a person dressed in white),，后用来指“穿白衣的谋求公职的人”,(a white-robbed seeker for office),。这与古罗马的风俗有关，当时凡候选人参加选举时均需穿上白衣。随着语言的发展，“穿白衣的”的原始意义丧失，只保留“候选人”,(a seeker for office),一义。显然，此义与原义已经分离。,8,Concept of “arbitrariness” and “motivation”,The relation between the meaning of a word and its sound is arbitrary(,无理据性的),. The majority of the words in the vocabulary of any language are conventional symbols(,约定俗成的语音符号),it is not possible to explain why this or that word has this or that sound.,Only a minority of words can be explained: we can say that they are motivated. Motivation(,理据),refers to the relationship between words.,Motivation can arise in Four ways:,9,i,) Phonetic motivation. These are called echo words, or onomatopoeia:,cuckoo, dingdong, mew, bark,etc.,ii) Grammatical motivation. A word like,landlord,is not purely conventional, although,land,and,lord,are conventional. Similarly, the word,leader,can be understood by any one who knows the English verb,to lead,and the suffix -,er.,iii) Motivation by meaning.,Bottleneck,(,狭口，隘道如公路或管道上狭窄或有障碍的部分),with reference to administration, production, etc., will be readily understood by all who know that “a narrow outlet for road-traffic” is often called by that name. Here it is the figurative usage that provides motivation: an obstruction is called a bottleneck because it is like the neck of a bottle.,iv) Motivation by etymon: the original or primary meaning of a word. A root or root word is one of those ultimate elements of a language that cannot be further analyzed - a primary word or form from which others are derived.,10,Popular or folk etymology(,民俗词源）,Folk etymology is the change that occurs in the form of a word over a period of prolonged usage so as to give it an apparent connection with some other well known word. For example, the word cutlet(,炸肉排),comes Fr. ctelette, cte = rib + the diminutive(,指小的),form, lette, therefore it means a small slice of meat from the ribs or leg, for frying or broiling(,烤肉), then people have the wrong association and spell it cut instead of cte.,Some other common examples:,Hamburger: hamburg steak, now stands for a kind of sandwich made with chopped beef in a round bun. So popular that people thought it had something to do with ham and burger(,碎肉夹饼), so they coined words like cheeseburger, chickenburger, turtleburger, lobsterburger, nutburger, raisinburger, wineburger.,exercise,11,3.,Analysis of word meaning and semantic field,i)Analysis of word meaning,Every word has one or more than one meanings.,Every word can be analyzed into many semantic,components or semantic features (viewed as distinctive,features),ii)Semantic field:,Definition: It is a small system that a group of words belong to the same category, which are closely related to one another,1) Life and Living Things,2) The Body: its Function and Welfare,3) People and the Family,12,4) Buildings, Houses, the Home, Clothes, Belongings, and Personal Care,5) Food, Drink, and Farming,6) Feelings, Emotions, attitudes, and Sensations,7) Thought and Communication, Language and Grammar,8) Substances, Materials, Objects, and Equipment,9) Arts and Crafts, Science and Technology,Industry and Education,10) Numbers, Measurement, Money and Commerce,11) Entertainment, Sports, and Games,12) Space and Time,13) Movement, Location, Travel and Transport,14) General and Abstract Terms,13,Different semantic fields in different languages,Different nationalities divide the same kinds of,things into different categories. So in their,languages, Using different words shows their,meanings.,Lexical gaps,Semantic fields are complete same,Semantic fields are partially same,Beware of “false friend”. It is called “misnomer”,exercises,Note:,14,Exercise 1,1.,语音分析,splash lap tinkle,发出溅泼声,(,水)溅泼声 丁当作响,bubble whir twitter,潺潺的流 呼呼声/鸟鸣声, 喋喋不休,2.,构词分析,depend : de (,前缀，表“否定，相反” ), pend,(,悬挂 ),ultra-violet:,紫外线 ,ultr,(超过 ),; violet(,紫光),trustworthy: trust(,信任),worth(,值得),ly,harmless: harm, less,borderline:,边界线;,border(,边界), line(,线路),skin-deep: skin+deep=,肤浅的, 表面的,Straightforward:straight+forward=,正直的, 坦率的,15,3.词源分析,parliament: The French word,to speak,is,parler,.,The Normans who conquered England,in 1066 spoke French and it was they,who introduced parliament to the,country.,pajamas: This word comes from the Persian words,pae,and,jamab,which meant a “large garment”. In,English we use it for a sleeping suit,library: This word comes from the Latin word,liber,which means a “book”.,panic:,Pan was the Greek god of the forests and meadows(,草地, 牧场),and the son of Mercury ,罗神墨丘利神(众神的信使),. He was half man and half goat and could inspire great and sudden fear by his strange appearance. It was half man and half goat,16,and could inspire great and sudden fear by his strange appearance. It was from Pans name that the word,panic, came.,tank: The tank used in,warfare,(,战争),was named in an unusual way. The vehicle was developed by the British during World War I. As it was a new weapon which they wished to keep secret until used, they labelled the parts “FOR TANKS” and the name stuck.,month: The suffix ”,th,” was added to the Old English word Mona which thus became,monath, the period of time which the moon measures. New moon to new moon= 1 month.,watt: It is the unit of electrical power and was named after James Watt, who was the famous inventor of the steam engine.,17,Exercise 2,1.F 2. M 3. I 4. B 5. C 6. N 7. L,8. A 9. D 10. G 11. H 12. K 13. E,14.J 15. L 16. M 17. A 18.F 19. E 20. J,Exercise 3,A kind of thin paper made esp. in China and used by artists there.,A type of large bird bred and kept on farms for its meat which is highly regarded as food, esp. for Christmas.,A hard smooth shiny variously colored substance formed inside the shell of certain shellfish, used for making ornamental articles.,Large dark-brown insect that comes out at night in dirty kitchens and places where food is kept.,18,5. Dark black ink made from natural substances, such as that used for Chinese and Japanese writing with a brush.,6. A stone at the side of a road, on which is marked the number of miles to the next town.,19,II. Makeup of Word Meaning,Types of meaning,1. Grammatical meaning and Lexical meaning,Grammatical meaning refers to that part of meaning which indicates grammatical relationships or functions, such as tense meaning, singular meaning, etc. Words with the similar lexical meaning can have different grammatical meanings, and words with different lexical meanings can have the same grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning is in use.,Lexical meaning,refers to a words aspects of its content. e.g. go, goes, gone, went, going(different grammatical meaning, but same lexical meaning),exercise 1,20,2. Conceptual meaning and Associative meaning,Lexical meaning is composed of conceptual meaning and associative meaning. Lexical meaning is relatively stable.,e.g. father, dad,daddy, papa, the old man, male parent.,Conceptual meaning,is often described as dictionary meaning or literal meaning of a word. It is the core of the meaning of a word. It is relatively constant and stable, because it is the meaning agreed upon by all the members of the same speech community.,(P.108),Associative meaning,is that part of meaning which has been supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It is the meaning which arises of the associations a word acquires. It is open-ended(,未确定的), unstable and indeterminate, because it varies with culture, time, place, class, individual experiences, etc. Associative meaning includes connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.,21,3.,Connotative meaning,Connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations are apt to vary from age to age and from society to society. Talking about connotation is in fact talking about the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.(P109-110 ),1)It plays an important role in daily conversation,and literary works.e.g. statesman, politican,wolf: ,喻残忍贪婪的人; 阴险狡猾的人; 残暴的人,dragon:,喷火吐焰的妖魔,monkey:,诡计多端, 极端狡猾,Sea:,广阔，无限，浩瀚,gold:,钱财, 财富, 幸福,22,2) The same word has different connotative meanings in different cultures(P.111),In all cultures, different colors have different associations. Here are some associations that colors have for British and American people. Red warns of danger. Green, the color of nature, also represents envy. If you are green with envy, you badly want something that someone has. Purple is associated with kings and queens and Roman emperors, because in the past, these were the only people who were allowed to wear purple. Blue is connected with sadness. If somebody looks blue, he is in very low spirits. Gray is connected with being dull and boring. A gray day is an unpleasant day. Black is associated with death and evil. White is associated with purity and moral goodness. Yellow represents coward.,Exercise 2,23,4.,Stylistic meaning,Language use can be formal, neutral and casual in style. The stylistic features of words, which make words appropriate for appropriate situations, constitute stylistic meanings of words.,1),words with neutral stylistic meanings and basic,vocabulary(P.111-112),2)formal words(P.113) nosenasal, toothdental,exercise 3,esp. technical terms in science,exercise 4,3)informal words(colloquialism, slang,exercise 5,vulgarism, professionalism, argot),4)neologism,exercise 6,and obsolescence,exercise 7,5)regional dialect,exercise 8,and social dialect(p.121),24,5. Affective meaning(p.122) Affective meaning refers to that part of meaning which conveys emotions and attitudes of a language user. Sometimes affective meanings are brought out only in context,.,exclamation(Oh, dear), evaluative words(horrible),Some words themselves have feelings.(love, hate),Some affixes added to some words can also have feelings.(weakling,虚弱者, 懦怯者,),Endearments(darling), VerbNoun(bore), conception,meaningconnotation meaning(Nazi, freedom),A group of words with the same conception meaning,have different feeling.( slim-thin-skinny)p.125,People have different opinions about the same word.,To Chinese people, China and communism are special feeling.,To some Americans, they think China is “the yellow peril”, “the,red threat”, “the communist menace”.,exercises,25,6. Collocative meaning(P.126),Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words that go before or come after a word in question.,e.g. The torch flashes.,The lantern gleams.,black tea bored by/with,tremble with fear,quiver with excitement,exercise,26,Exercise One,A.,1.plod(,沉重缓慢地走), trudge(,跋涉),2.waddle(,蹒跚而行) 3.,strut(,大摇大摆地走,),4.stagger(,摇摇摆摆走,) 5.slouch(,懒洋洋地走),6.,stride(,大步行走) 7.,mince(,小步走路),8.dawdle(,闲逛，游荡) 9.,shuffle(,拖着脚走),9.hustle(,硬挤过去;拥硬挤; 乱推, 挤进出,),B.,1.drawl(,懒洋洋地说),2.stammer(,结结巴巴地说),3.mutter(,咕哝) 4.,gabble(,喋喋不休地说),5.lisp(,咬着舌儿说) 6.,chat(,聊天),yarn(,奇谈),7.tattle(,闲谈) 8.,prattle(,天真地说),9.sneer(,冷笑, 嘲笑) 10.,rave(,咆哮),27,Exercise 2,1.g 2.l 3.o 4.c 5.i 6.r 7.a 8.t,9.d 10.n 11.s 12.m 13.p 14.q 15.k,16.b 17.f 18.j 19.h 20.e,back,Exercise 3,1.literary(,书本的) 2.,fraternal 3.feline(,猫科的),4.puerile(,孩子气的) 5.,filial(,子女的, 孝顺的),6.diurnal(,每日的) 7.,canine(,犬的),8.,auricular(,耳的, 耳状的) 9.,terrestrial(,陆地),10.oval(,卵形的, 椭圆的) 11.,ocular(,眼睛的, 视觉的),12.paternal 13.igneous(,火的) 14.,hostile,(,敌对的),15.vulpine(,狡猾的) 16.,amicable(,友善的, 和平的),17.manual(,手工的, 体力的) 18.,capital(,重要的),19. cordial(,热诚的；衷心的),20.celestial(,天上的),28,21.equine(,马的) 22.,marital(,婚姻的),23.renal(,肾脏的) 24.,equestrian(,骑士阶层的),25.,vital(,生命的) 26.,lucid(,光辉的, 明亮的),27.labial(,唇的, 嘴唇的) 28.,human,29.lactic(.,乳的, 乳汁的) 30.,mental 31.lunar,32.maternal 33.oral 34.nominal(,名字的),35.nocturnal(,夜的, 夜曲的) 36.,nasal,37.bovine(,牛的, 似牛的) 38.,spacious(,广大的),39.marine 40.ovine(,绵羊的) 41.,visible,42.cutaneous(,皮肤的) 43.,filial(,子女的, 孝顺的, 当做子女的),44.vernal(,春天的) 45.,fluvial(,河流的),46.stellar 47.solar 48.temporal(,时间的),29,49.lingual(,语言的) 50.,dental 51.urban,52.arboreal(,树的) 53.,veracious(,真实的),54.bellicose(,好战的, 好斗的) 55.,aqueous(,水的),56.conjugal(,夫妇间的) 57.,mundane(,世界的),58.vermicular(,蠕虫的),59.feminine(,妇女的),60.juvenile(,青少年的),Exercise Four,1.钡 2.银 3.氮 4.碘 5.氧 6.钙 7.铀 8.铬,9.,汞 10.钴 11.硅 12.氦 13.钾 14.金 15.磷 16.硫,17.,铝 18.氯 19.镁 20.锰 21.钠 22.铅 23.氢,24.砷,25.,碳 26.铁 27.铜 28.钨 29.锡 30.锌,30,Exercise Five,1.stylishly dressed person(,爱打扮的人),2.loose woman(,妓女) 3.,pistol(,手枪),4.truancy,(逃避) 5.,fellow 6.woman,7.fellow(usually male) 8.silly 9. drunk,10.money 11.fine 12.accordion(,手风琴),13.girl 14.coward 15.Frenchman,16.beard 17.stupid person,18.swift ride(,快速旅行；赶路),19.intellectual(,知识分子),20.fight(,忧郁的, 沮丧的),31,Exercise Six,1.气垫汽车 2.使用两种文化 3.卡式录音机,4.,模棱两可的用词 5.优种学 6.照相排版术,7.,无菌学 8.被劫持者 9.免疫组织学,10.,爵士迪斯科 11.苏联问题专家 12.大型高级轿车,13.,长裙 14.超短裙 15.核弹,16.,过高的给分 17.石油美元 18.四声道的,19.惩罚主义 20.侦探卫星,Exercise Seven,1.although 2.at once 3.across 4.anything,5.bid 6.begot(,书面语) 招致) 7.,wave 8.sea, ocean,9.horse 10.clothed 11.climbed 12.horse,32,13.crowed 14.dreadful 15.also 16.before,17.,formerly 18.evening 19.holy 20.perhaps,21.anger 22.cows 23.sea, ocean,24.it seems to me 25.morning 26.said,27.sat 28.truth 29.wife 30.horse,31.staved(,弄破的,) 32.peasant 33.slave, slavery,34.thrived 35.truth 36.sell 37.spring,38.were 39.thing 40.in ancient times,Exercise Eight,1.jo: sweetheart 2.acquent: acquainted,3.bonie: handsome beautiful 4.brent: high, smooth,5.beld: bald 6.snaw: snow,7.pow: head 8.clamb: climbed,9.thegither: together 10.monie: many,11.cantie:cheerful 12.ane anither:one another,13.maun: must,33,Exercise Nine,1.fashionable stylish modish(,时髦的),2.accumulate gather hoard(,秘藏),3.friend companion accomplice(,同谋者),4.scrupulous(,小心谨慎的),ca