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单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,*,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,C,hapter 11,M,otivation,outline,understanding,motivaton,Eating,Sexual behavior,Motivation for personal achievement,A hierarchy of needs,Understanding motivation,Motivation,is the process involved in,starting,directing, and,maintaining,physical and psychological activities,动机是激发和维持个体进行活动，并导致该活动朝向某一目标的心理倾向或动力。,Functions of Motivational Concepts,To relate biology to behavior,To account for behavioral variability,To infer private states from public acts,To assign responsibility for actions,To explain,per,se,ver,ance,despite adversity,Sources of Motivation,Drive,驱力,Drive,is defined in biological terms as,internal states that arise in response to an organisms physical needs.,D,rive-reduction theory,驱力理论,Tension reduction is reinforcing, but is,not sufficient,to explain all types of motivated behavior.,Drive Reductionism and Homeostasis,D,rive-reduction theory,驱力理论,Drives occur as a result of environmental change and the desire for an organism to maintain,homeostasis (or equilibrium),of the internal environment.,Homeostasis,动态平衡,is a steady state. People are motivated to maintain a steady state.,We engage in behaviors that reduce the tension.,Sources of Motivation,I,ncentive,诱因,Behavior can also be motivated by incentives,external stimuli,or rewards,that do not relate directly to biological needs.,Instinctual Behaviors and Learning,Instincts,are preprogrammed, species-specific behaviors essential for survival.,本能是在进化过程中形成的，由遗传固定下来的一种不学而能的行为模式。,James (1890),Freud (1915),Behaviorist and anthropologist(19591939),Question,Motives are described as hypothetical states because,a.they cannot be seen or measured directly.,b.they cannot be measured.,c.there is no theory of motivation.,d.they are questionable.,Eating,E,ating,The Physiology of Eating,饮食的生理学,The Psychology of Eating,饮食的心理学,The Physiology of Eating,four tasks:,Detect,internal food need,Initiate and organize,eating behavior,Monitor,quantity and quality of food eaten,Detect,when sufficient food has been eaten and,stop,eating,The Physiology of Eating,Biological Influences on Hunger.,C,hewing a,nd,swallowing,provide some sensations of satiety,过饱,.,experiment,The Physiology of Eating,Peripheral Responses,外周反应,Cannon (1934) proposed,gastric activity,in an empty stomach,空胃里的胃部活动,was the sole basis for hunger,The Physiology of Eating,stomach contractions are not a necessary condition for hunger.,Injections of sugar,into the bloodstream will stop the stomach contractions but not the hunger of an animal with an empty stomach.,H,uman patients who have had their stomachs entirely removed still experience hunger pangs,Research shows,gastric distension,胃部扩张,caused by ingestion of food causes the individual to stop eating.,The Physiology of Eating,Ventromedial hypothalamus,.,(VMH),腹内侧下丘脑（饱食中枢）,The stop eating center of the brain.,Research with rats has shown that:,When destroyed the rat continues to eat (becomes,h,yperphagic贪食的).,When stimulated the rat stops eating.,Lateral hypothalamus is the start eating center of the brain.,(LH),外侧下丘脑（饥饿中枢）,When destroyed the rat may stop eating altogether (aphagic).,When stimulated the rat starts to eat.,Central Responses,中枢反应,O,besity and dieting,H,eredity,C,hildren bear a closer resemblance in weight to their biological parents than adaptive parents.,F,at cells,O,besity and dieting,Other factors that influence hunger include:,Aroma of food, 香味,Anxiety or depression, or,Boredom.,Eating Disorders and Body Image,Anorexia nervosa,神经性厌食,:,Individual weighs less than 85 percent of expected weight, but continues to express fear of becoming fat. Characterized by over- control of food intake.,Eating Disorders and Body Image,Bulimia nervosa,神经性贪食,:,Characterized by periods of intense, out-of control eating, or bingeing, followed by efforts to purge the body of excess calories through self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, and/or fasting.,Eating Disorders and Body Image,Prevalence of anorexia nervosa in late-adolescent and young adult females is about 0.5 to 1.0 percent.,Prevalence of bulimia nervosa during late-adolescent and young adult females is about 1.0 to 3.0 percent.,Females are ten times more likely to suffer eating disorders than males.,Motivation for Personal Achievement,Motivation for Personal Achievement,Outline,Need for Achievement,成就的需要,Atttibutions for Success and Failure,成功与失败的归因,Work and Organizational Psychology,工作和组织心理学,Need for Achievement,Murray postulated,a need for achievement (n Ach),that varied in strength in different people, and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances.,HENRY MURRAY,1893-1988,成就动机,是人们希望从事对他有重要意义的、有一定困难的、,具有挑战性的活动，在活动中能取得完满的优异结果和成绩，,并能超过他人的动机。,Need for Achievement,McClelland used the,Thematic Apperception Test (TAT),主题统觉测验,to measure strength of Need for Achievement.,David McClelland,Need for Achievement,The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT),主题统觉测验,是投射测验的一种。测验中不对被试所编故事的内容进行任何限制，对被试所编故事进行的分析是以被试在每个故事中涉及的主题为核心的，该测验的目的在于通过被试的自由陈述将其内心的动机、情绪等自然投注于故事，从而寻找出个人生活经验、意识、潜意识与其当前心理状态的关系。,Need for Achievement,n Ach reflected individual differences in the importance of planning and working toward attainment of ones goals.,High scores on n Ach reflected,upward mobility,上进心,.,High n Ach individuals have a,need for efficiency.,Likely to earn,higher salaries,and be promoted,Earn,higher grades,Atttibutions for Success and Failure,Atttibutions for Success and Failure,Attributions,are judgments about the causes of outcomes that can impact the level of motivation.,归因就是关于结果产生的原因的评价，这种评价能对动机产生影响。,Atttibutions for Success and Failure,Attributions can vary along,two,dimensions:,Locus of control orientation,控制源倾向,is a belief that outcomes of our actions are contingent on the following:,internal,control orientation,external,control orientation,The dimension of,stability,versus instability.,Ability,luck,Task,difficulty,effort,external,internal,unstabe,stabe,Atttibutions for Success and Failure,Pessimistic attributional style,focuses on causes of failure as being,internally,generated, with the situation and ones role in causing it as,stable,.,Optimistic attributional style,attributes failure to,external,causes and to events that are,unstable,.,Causal explanations reverse when the outcome is a success.,A Hierarchy of Needs,A Hierarchy of Needs,Maslow posited that the individuals basic motives formed a hierarchy of needs, with needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level.,A Hierarchy of Needs,Biological,: Bottom level needs, such as hunger and thirst, require satisfaction before other needs can begin operation.,Safety,is a requirement to attend to needs for protection from danger, need for security, comfort, and freedom from fear.,Attachment,is the need to belong, affiliate with others, love and to be loved.,Esteem,is the needs to like oneself, to see oneself as competent and effective, and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others.,A Hierarchy of Needs,Self-actualization,: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the quest for fullest development of his/her potential. Individual is selfaware, self-accepting, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty and challenge.,
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