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Chapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionSecond Language Acquisition-formallyestablished itself as a discipline around the1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowone person acquires a second languagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Distinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguage1Chapter11SecondLanguageAcqConnections between first language acquisition&second language acquisitionThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackcloth(背景）forperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).SLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.Interlanguage（中介语）2ConnectionsbetweenfirstlanContrastive analysis(CA)对比分析对比分析(1960s)Positivetransfer-facilitatetargetlanguagelearningNegativetransfer-interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearningIt is believed that differences between the nativelanguage and the target language would posedifficulties in second/foreign language learning andteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.3Contrastiveanalysis(CA)对比分Shortcomings of CATheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“Differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.4ShortcomingsofCATheCAwassError analysis(EA)Thecontrastiveapproachtolearnerserrorshasshednewlightonpeoplesattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.Twomainsortsoferrors:Interlingualerrors(语际错误/受母语影响的错误）&intralingualerrors(语内错误）5Erroranalysis(EA)ThecontraInterlingual errors-Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a.Substitutionoftforanddfor:threetree,thisdis.b.Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmit6Interlingualerrors-InterliIntralingual errors-Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Twotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-association7Intralingualerrors-TheintOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization-theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.Walked,watched,washed *rided,*goed,*doed,*eatedJane advised me to give up smoking.Jane told me to give up smoking.*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.8OvergeneralizationOvergeneraliCross-association互相联想互相联想Cross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.Other/another,much/many,stalagmite石笋/stalactite钟乳石Itmayalso occursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.The coffee is too hot to drink.*The apricot is too sour to eat it.9Cross-association互相联想Cross-assErrors&mistakesErrors(错误)-unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；Mistakes(失误)-eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).10Errors&mistakesErrors(错误)-Interlanguage (S.Pit Corder&Larry Selinker)Interlanguage-learnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.11Interlanguage(S.PitCorderCharacteristics of interlanguageInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeability渗透性andfossilization.Fossilization-aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.12CharacteristicsofinterlanguaThe role of native language in 2nd language learningLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)Threeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer:A learners psychology Perception of native-target language distance Actual knowledge of the target languageMentalists(心灵主义者)arguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.13Theroleofnativelanguagei2nd language learning models and input hypothesisBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;Thementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.Thesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.142ndlanguagelearningmodelsIndividual differencesLanguageaptitude(语言能力）MotivationLearningstrategiesAgeofacquisitionPersonality15IndividualdifferencesLanguagLanguage aptitudeLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearnersgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:Phonemic coding abilityGrammatical sensitivityInductive language learning abilityRote learning ability（强记能力）16LanguageaptitudeLanguageaptiMotivationMotivation can be defined as the learnersattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecond language.Generally four types ofmotivationshavebeenidentified:P164Instrumental motivation 工具型动机Integrative motivation 融入型动机Resultative motivation 结果动机Intrinsic motivation 内在动机17MotivationMotivationcanbedeLearning strategiesLearningstrategiesarelearnersconscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:Cognitive strategies-analyzing,synthesis综合推理 and internalizing what has been learned.Metacognitive strategies-planning,monitoring and evaluating ones learning.Affect/social strategies-the ways learners interact with other speakers.Cohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.P.16518LearningstrategiesLearningstAge of acquisition TheCriticalPeriodHypothesisRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.19AgeofacquisitionTheCriticaPersonality Intermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(as in the case of Liyang:Crazy English).20PersonalityIntermsofcommunSLA&its pedagogical implicationsModifiedinput-providingcomprehensibleinputtofacilitatelearning.Modifiedinteraction-providinglearningprompts,morecomprehensionchecks,recastsandexpansiontoachievemaximumlearning.Focusonform-providingformalinstructionandexplicitcorrectioninclass.21SLA&itspedagogicalimplicat
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