社会心理学《第三讲-行为与态度》课件

4.Behaviors and AttitudesSocial Psychologyby David G.Myers 8th Edition4.Behaviors and AttitudesSoci1最早的态度实验态度正式研究开始于19世纪末期。1888年，朗格在有关反应时间的实验中发现，被试如果集中注意即将作出的反应，其反应时间比他集中注意即将来临的刺激时要短。这种预先的倾向或准备的状态就是所谓的态度。最早的态度实验态度正式研究开始于19世纪末期。1888年，朗24.1 What is an Attitude?Attitude:A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone,exhibited in ones beliefs,feelings,or intended behavior.4.1 What is an Attitude?Attit3Key words A:mental state of readiness(准备)to respond to a target(a person,an object,an issue)B:predispositions(心理倾向）to respond evaluative(favorable,neutral,or unfavorably)in various degrees C:a hypothetical construct(ghost,everybody is talking about but nobody has ever seen)D:general and integrated impression about a target Key words A:mental state of 4国内定义：态度是指个体对一定社会刺激所持有的，具有一定结构、相对稳定和内化了的心理反应倾向。1、态度是一种心理反应倾向，一种特殊的心理过程。2、态度的构成具有一定的结构。3、态度是相对稳定的心理反应倾向。4、态度是内化了的心理过程，经由经验组合而成。5、态度是对一定社会刺激的心理反应倾向，是在主体与客体的相互联系之中形成的。国内定义：态度是指个体对一定社会刺激所持有的，具有一定结构、5Tri-components of attitudeABC theory Cognitive beliefs facts and knowledge Affective evaluative preference Behavioral intention approach/avoidance Tri-components of attitudeABC6社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件7ATTITUDE SURVEYPlease indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the statements below,using the following scale:1=strongly disagree2=disagree3=neither agree nor disagree4=agree5=strongly agree 1.Engaging in regular physical exercise three times a week promotes good health.2.Eating a variety of foods each day,including five or more servings of fresh fruits and vegetables,contributes to wellness.3.It is essential that all citizens exercise their right to vote if government is to effectively reflect the will of the people.4.Homelessness is a serious social problem that needs attention.ATTITUDE SURVEYPlease indicat8BEHAVIOR SURVEYPlease indicate whether or not you have performed each of the following actions:Yes No 1.I take time to engage in regular physical exercise at least three times a week.Yes No 2.I regularly eat at least five servings of fresh fruits and vegetables each day.Yes No 3.I voted in the last election for which I was eligible.Yes No 4.Within the last year,I have personally done something to address the problem of homelessness(e.g.,made a charitable contribution,talked with a homeless person,wrote my congressman regarding the problem of homelessness).BEHAVIOR SURVEYPlease indicat9社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件104.2 Attitude behavior inconsistency For many years,researchers have found that expressed attitudes(obtained from questionnaires or interviews)often do not correspond to their behavior.4.2 Attitude behavior incons11社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件12拉皮埃尔的实验1934第一部分：现场研究-带领一对中国留学生夫妇，游历美国，行程数万里。到了66家旅馆和184家饭店，只有一家拒绝接待。单独访问也未被拒。第二部分：问卷研究-6个月后，对去过的每一家旅馆和饭店进行问卷调查。作为比较，对未去过的一些饭店和旅馆也做了同样调查。结果？拉皮埃尔的实验193413结果！普遍高度拒绝，每一类只有1家明确表示愿意，拒绝率高达90%以上。为什么？研究设计上的问题结果！普遍高度拒绝，每一类只有1家明确表示愿意，拒绝率高达914社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件154.2.1 Do our attitudes determine our behavior?One does what one is;one becomes what one does.(Robert Musil 1930)To what extent,and under what conditions,do the attitudes of the heart drive our outward actions?4.2.1 Do our attitudes determ16Are we all hypocrites（伪君子）?Student attitudes toward cheating bore little relation to the likelihood of their actually cheating.Self-described racial attitudes provided little clue to behaviors in actual situations.Are we all hypocrites（伪君子）?St17A“Moral hypocrisy”study Daniel Batson(1997-2002):they presented their people with an appealing task(where the participant could earn raffle tickets toward a$30 prize)and a dull task with no positive consequences.the participants had to assign themselves to one task and a supposed second participant to the other.A“Moral hypocrisy”study Dan18Result Only 1 in 20 believed that assigning the positive task to themselves was the most moral thing to do,yet 80 percent did so.Flip coins:90 percent assigned themselves to the positive task!Result Only 1 in 20 believed t194.2.2 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?Minimizing social influences on expressed attitudesMinimizing other influences on behaviorExamining attitudes specific to the behaviorMaking attitudes potent4.2.2 When Do Attitudes Predi20When social influences on what we say are minimal?Todays social psychologists have some clever means at their disposal for subtly assessing attitudes.One is to measure facial muscle responses to statements.Another,the“implicit association test”uses reaction times to measure how quickly people associate concepts.When social influences on what21When other influences on behavior are minimal?A principle:The effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a persons aggregate or average behavior rather than at isolated acts.When other influences on beha22Summarize Our attitudes predict our actions if:1.other influences are minimal 2.the attitude is specific to the action 3.the attitude is potent as when we are reminded of it Summarize Our attitudes predic23 4.2.3 Does Behavior Determine Attitudes?Role playingSaying becomes believingThe foot-in-the-door phenomenonEvil acts and attitudesInterracial behavior and attitudesSocial movements 4.2.3 Does Behavior Determin24Role playingRole:a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave.When enacting new social roles,we may at first feel phony.but our unease seldom lasts.Role playingRole:a set of nor25Saying becomes believingWhen induced to give spoken or written witness to something they doubt,people will often feel bad about their deceit.nevertheless,they begin to believe what they are saying-provided they werent bribed or coerced（强迫）into doing so.Saying becomes believingWhen i26The foot-in-the-door phenomenonThe tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.实验表明，如果想要别人帮你一个大忙，一个有效的策略就是：先请他们帮一个小忙。The foot-in-the-door phenomeno27登门槛现象实验请求加利福尼亚人在院子里安置一个巨大的“安全驾驶”标牌，直接请求只有17%人答应。如果先要求帮一个小忙，在窗口安置一个很小的标志“作一个安全驾驶者”，两周后大要求答应者达到76%。登门槛现象实验请求加利福尼亚人在院子里安置一个巨大的“安全驾28 researchIn internet chat-rooms,Paul Markey and his colleagues(2002)requested help(“I cant get my e-mail to work.is there any way I can get you to send me an e-mail?”).Help increased from 2 to 16 percent by including a smaller prior request(“I am new to this whole computer thing.is there any way you can tell me how to look at someones profile?”)researchIn internet chat-room29小例子：我正在竞选议员，请你佩带一个竞选纽扣吧。再请你在车的保险杠上粘上这个竞选帖纸吧。再请你在草坪前挂一些我的肖像画吧。你怎么会不投我的票呢？你都已经帮了我这么多了。小例子：我正在竞选议员，请你佩带一个竞选纽扣吧。30Low-ball technique A tactic for getting people to agree to something.people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante.people who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.Low-ball technique A tactic f31低球技术也有翻译成低价法策略。在销售过程中被广泛使用的一项策略。在顾客因为价格便宜答应买东西并且准备付钱时，销售人员在顾客认为已经包括的选项上讨价还价，或者以“我们已经赔钱了，老板不同意这个价钱”为借口提价，发现更多的顾客会在高价下坚持购买。低球技术也有翻译成低价法策略。在销售过程中被广泛使用的一项策32小例子哦，我真不敢相信这个价格。我买了。这款车子真是很便宜的，你真幸运！我想你一定愿意增加一些额外的服务项目的。什么服务？比如，加车灯头，配轮胎，保险杠-小例子哦，我真不敢相信这个价格。我买了。33社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件34Evil acts and attitudesThe attitudes-follow-behavior principle works with immoral acts as well.Evil sometimes results from gradually escalating commitments.A trifling evil act can make a worse act easier.Evil acts gnaw（侵蚀）at the actors moral sensitivity.Evil acts and attitudesThe att35 example Cruel（残酷）acts corrode（侵蚀）the consciences(良心)of those who perform them.Harming an innocent victim by uttering hurtful comments or delivering electric shocks typically leads aggressors to disparage(贬损)their victims,thus helping them justify their behavior.example Cruel（残酷）acts corrod36Interracial behavior and attitudesOur political rituals the daily flag salute by schoolchildren,singing the national anthem use public conformity to build private allegiance（忠诚）.Interracial behavior and attit37偏见偏见38社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件39如何消除偏见和歧视？社会心理学家阐述了一些方法：1、建立共同的目标-谢里夫等人的研究表明，在竞争的情境中，一个群体的受损是另一个群体的获益，这会增加敌意、产生偏见。而追求共同的目标可以使敌对的群体走向合作。如何消除偏见和歧视？社会心理学家阐述了一些方法：402、进行平等的接触-先前相互隔离的群体成员之间的平等接触，在一定条件下会打破和消除原有的刻板印象与偏见。如，与黑人战士共同战斗过的白人战士对黑人偏见要更少。2、进行平等的接触-先前相互隔离的群体成员之间的平等接触413、外群体成员的个体化-把外群体成员当作个体来进行了解。个体化是进行社会接触、减少偏见的较成功的方法。3、外群体成员的个体化-把外群体成员当作个体来进行了解424.2.4 Why Do Actions Affect Attitudes?Social psychologys detectives suspect three possible sources:1.self-presentation theory 2.cognitive dissonance theory 3.self-perception theory 4.2.4 Why Do Actions Affect A43通过行为来影响态度乔治大脑中控制头部运动的区域暂时被植入了电极，当神经外科医生用遥控刺激电极，乔治总要转头。他并没有意识到这是遥控的结果，而是给他转头做出了合理解释：“我在找拖鞋”。“我听到了一种声音”。“我闲不住”。“我想看床下有什么东西”。通过行为来影响态度乔治大脑中控制头部运动的区域暂时被植入了电441.self-presentation theorySelf-presentation(自我展示)theory assumes that for strategic reasons we express attitudes that make us appear consistent.impression management:our behavior aims to create desired impressions.1.self-presentation theorySelf452.cognitive dissonance theoryCognitive dissonance theory assumes that to reduce discomfort,we justify our actions to ourselves.Insufficient justificationDissonance after decisions2.cognitive dissonance theoryC46Cognitive dissonance Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions.For example,dissonance may occur when we realize that we have,with little justification,acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.Cognitive dissonance Tension t47社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件48社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件49Dissonance after decisions The emphasis on perceived choice and responsibility implies that decisions produce dissonance.when faced with an important decision,we are sometimes torn between two equally attractive alternatives.When having committed yourself,you became painfully aware of dissonant cognitions the desirable features of what you had rejected and the undesirable features of what you had chosen.Dissonance after decisions The50社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件513.self-perception theory Self-perception theory assumes that our actions are self-revealing(when uncertain about our feelings or beliefs,we look to our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs,much as anyone else would).3.self-perception theory Self52Expressions and attitude Expressions and attitude 53Overjustification(过度合理化)and intrinsic motivationsOverjustification(过度合理化)and i54社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件55社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件56平衡理论海德著名模型：POX基本观点：相互联系的事物组成了一个单元或系统。如果单元内各个方面的动力特征都是相同的，则它处于平衡状态，不存在引发变化的压力。如果单元内各成分不能协同存在，则单元处于不平衡状态，状态不平衡的单元内会存在压力，使认知组织发生变化，以恢复平衡。平衡理论海德578种情况：+代表积极心向；-代表消极心向P代表认知主体；O代表与之发生联系的另一个人；X代表第三者的人、事或物模型中三者关系符号的乘积若为正，则为平衡状态。8种情况：+代表积极心向；-代表消极心向58模型示例PO+X+POX+-POX-+POX-+模型示例PO+X+POX+-POX-+POX-+59功能理论原理：主要立足于精神分析的立场，认为态度的形成和改变有其深层的心理动力根源，而态度的功能在于满足个体特殊的心理需求。功能理论原理：主要立足于精神分析的立场，认为态度的形成和改变60功能理论把态度与个体的内在需要联系起来，因此突出了持有和改变态度的个体差异。认为，要有效地改变一个人的态度，就必须了解他支配着这一态度的心理需要是什么。了解需要改变需要态度改变功能理论把态度与个体的内在需要联系起来，因此突出了持有和改变61学习理论原理：立足于行为主义的立场，认为态度形成和改变的过程也是一种学习的过程，因此，适用于其他学习形式的原则，也适用于态度。经典条件反射（某食物出现，父母皱眉父母皱眉，孩子不悦某食物出现，孩子不悦）操作性条件反射（为讨得父亲的微笑，表示与父亲相同的看法）观察学习（儿童常常学会了父母所做的，而不是父母所说的，如赌博、吸烟）学习理论原理：立足于行为主义的立场，认为态度形成和改变的过程624.3 PersuasionPersuasion is everywhere.When we approve it,we may call it“education”.4.3 Persuasion63社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件64社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件654.3.1 What Paths Lead to Persuasion?The Central RouteThe Peripheral Route4.3.1 What Paths Lead to Pers66Central route persuasion:occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.Computer ads typically take the central route,by assuming their audience wants to systematically compare features and prices.Central route persuasion:occur67Peripheral route persuasion:occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues,such as a speakers attractiveness.Soft-drink ads usually take the peripheral route,by merely associating their product with glamour,pleasure,and good moods.Peripheral route persuasion:oc68社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件69社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件70社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件71社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件724.3.2 what are the elements of Persuasion?4.3.2 what are the elements o73Who says what by what means to whom?Among the primary ingredients（成分）of persuasion（说服）explored by social psychologists are these four:(1).the communicator(2).the message(3).how the message is communicated(4).the audience Who says what by what means to74社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件754.3.2.1 Who Says?The CommunicatorCredibility:believability,a credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy.Attractiveness and Liking:having qualities that appeal to an audience.an appealing communicator(often someone similar to the audience)is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.4.3.2.1 Who Says?The Communic76专长性的研究阿龙森：1963研究者请被试来参加一项美学的实验，并要求他们评价选自无名现代诗的九个节段。接着，让他们读另一个人对其中一节诗（被试最不喜欢的一节）所作的评论，说它好。告诉一部分被试这篇评论出于著名诗人之手，而告诉另一部分被试它出自一个师范学院的学生之手。然后，让被试对这一节诗再作一次评价，看看有无改变。结果：改变幅度相差2-4倍。专长性的研究阿龙森：196377读他人的不同评论诗人所写学生所写被试再评诗被试先评价诗读他人的不同评论诗人所写学生所写被试再评诗被试先评价诗78可靠性的研究沃尔斯特：1966研究者让甲组被试听到一份“加强法制和扩大警察和法庭权力以严管罪犯”的呼吁；让乙组被试听到另一份“反对警察和法庭权力过大，以保护被告权利”的呼吁。然后，将两组被试各分两半：告诉一半人这份呼吁是检查官的建议；告诉另一半这份呼吁是被判刑罪犯的申求。让被试谈谈自己是否同意呼吁中的建议。结果？可靠性的研究沃尔斯特：196679被试甲组：支持严管乙组：反对严管检察官建议罪犯建议检察官建议罪犯建议被试是否同意被试甲组：支持严管乙组：反对严管检察官建议罪犯建议检察官建议80社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件81社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件824.3.2.2 What Is Said?The Message Content(1)Reason Versus EmotionThe effect of good feelings:messages also become more persuasive through association with good feelings.The effect of arousing fear:fear-arousing messages are more effective if you lead people not only to fear the severity and likelihood of a threatened event but also to perceive a solution and to feel capable of implementing it.4.3.2.2 What Is Said?The Mes83(2)Discrepancy(差异差异)Discrepancy interacts with communicator credibility:only a highly credible communicator maintains effectiveness when arguing an extreme position.(2)Discrepancy(差异)84沟通信息信息的差异性-在一定范围内，差异越大改变越多，超出此范围，差异越大，改变越少。沟通信息信息的差异性-在一定范围内，差异越大改变越多，85(3)One-Sided Versus Two-Sided Appeals The interaction of initial opinion with one-versus two-sidedness:after Germanys defeat in world war,American soldiers skeptical of a message suggesting Japans strength were more persuaded by a two-sided communication.Soldiers initially agreeing with the message were strengthened more by a one-sided message.(3)One-Sided Versus Two-Sided86社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件87(4)Primacy Versus Recency:Primacy effect:other things being equal,information presented first usually has the most influence.Recency effect:information presented last sometimes has the most influence.Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.(4)Primacy Versus Recency:884.3.2.3 How Is It Said?The Channel of Communication:the way the message is delivered whether face to face,in writing,on film,or in some other way.Active Experience or Passive Reception:persuasion decreases as the significance and familiarity of the issue increase.4.3.2.3 How Is It Said?The Ch89Personal Versus Media ExperienceAlthough face-to-face influence is usually greater than media influence,we should not underestimate the medias power.Two-step flow（两步流程）of communication:the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders,who in turn influence others.Personal Versus Media Experien904.3.2.4 To Whom Is It Said?The AudienceHow Old Are They?Generational explanation:the attitudes older people adopted when they were young persist largely unchanged.The attitudes of older people usually show less change than do those of young people.4.3.2.4 To Whom Is It Said?The91What Are They Thinking?The crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not the message but the responses it evokes in a persons mind.What Are They Thinking?92(1)Forewarned is forearmed（战斗准备）if you care enough to counterargue（辩驳）.(2)Psychologist demonstrated the difficulty of trying to persuade people under the forewarning circumstances.Forewarned is forearmed（战斗准备）93(2)Distraction(分心)disarms counterarguingVerbal persuasion is also enhanced by distracting people with something that attracts their attention just enough to inhibit counterarguing.(2)Distraction(分心)disarms co94社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件95Remember:six persuasion principles 1.authority:people defer to credible experts.Application:establish your expertise;identify problems you have solved and people you have served.2.Liking:people respond more affirmatively to those they like.Application:win friends and influence people.create bonds based on similar interests,praise freely.Remember:six persuasion princ963.Social proof:people allow the example of others to validate（证实）how to think,feel,and act.Application:use“peer power”-have respected others lead the way.4.Reciprocity:people feel obliged to repay in kind what theyve received.Application:be generous with your time and resources.3.Social proof:people allow 975.Consistency:people tend to honor their public commitments.Application:have others write or voice their intentions.Dont say“please do this by”instead,elicit a“yes”by asking.6.Scarcity:people prize whats scarce.Application:highlight genuinely exclusive information or opportunities.5.Consistency:people tend to 98如何使别人遵从？1，我以十分谦逊的方式来要求他们按照要求工作。（？）2，我会对我要求的行为提供专家解释。（？）3，我表现得十分友好，以至于她不能拒绝我的要求。（？）4，我会告诉他们这样做的回报很高。（？）5，我会告诉她她最喜欢的人也是这样做的。（？）如何使别人遵从？1，我以十分谦逊的方式来要求他们按照要求工作99社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件100Case Studies in Persuasion:Cult IndoctrinationAttitudes follow behaviorPersuasive elementsThe communicatorThe messageThe audienceGroup EffectsCase Studies in Persuasion:Cu1014.3.3 how can persuasion be resisted?4.3.3 how can persuasion be r102抗拒理论布林当一个人的行为自由受到威胁时，他会处于一种动机唤醒状态，这种状态驱使他去试图恢复自己的自由。自由行为即可自己进行选择的行为。抗拒理论布林103三种拒绝接受他人影响的心理倾向心理抗拒倾向-维护自我控制，反对他人操纵心理惯性-遵循费力最小原则保留面子-维护不轻易受影响的自我形象三种拒绝接受他人影响的心理倾向心理抗拒倾向-维护自我控104影响心理抗拒的因素：对自由的期望；对自由剥夺的威胁；自由的重要程度；自由剥夺的负面影响。影响心理抗拒的因素：对自由的期望；105社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件106霍夫兰认为：任何态度的改变都是在一个人的原有态度与外部存在着一些不同于此的看法（或态度）发生差异造成的。这种差异会产生压力，引起内心冲突、或称不协调、不平衡、不一致。为缩小这种差异，减少压力，人具有恢复心理协调的能力，方式有两种：一为接受外来影响，改变自己原有的态度；二是采取各种办法去否定或抵制外部影响，以维持原有态度。霍夫兰认为：任何态度的改变都是在一个人的原有态度与外部存在着107抵制的办法1、贬损来源：当人们有时无法驳倒对方的论点时，常采用贬低或损坏影响者的声誉来表明信息不可靠或无价值，从而加以拒绝。如：人身攻击，这种抗拒手法在政治斗争、法庭审判、竞选活动和日常生活中经常可见。抵制的办法1、贬损来源：当人们有时无法驳倒对方的论点时，常采108抵制的办法2、歪曲信息：即有意无意的断章取义，将对方某些实质上不同于自己的观点看作是和自己的看法相同或相近；或者把对方的观点故意夸大到极端，失去可靠性甚至变得荒唐可笑。抵制的办法2、歪曲信息：即有意无意的断章取义，将对方某些实质109抵制的办法3、掩盖拒绝：两种方式：一是以文饰或美化自己的真正看法或态度来拒绝外部的劝说或影响。一是不理睬，不回答对方的意见，也不明确拒绝，而是自顾自地继续维持原有见解和看法。抵制的办法3、掩盖拒绝：两种方式：110社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件1114.3.3.1 Strengthening Personal Commitment(1)Challenging Beliefs(2)Developing Counterarguments4.3.3.1 Strengthening Perso112Resisting Persuasion:Attitude Inoculation Attitude inoculation:exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come,they will have refutations available.Resisting Persuasion:Attitude1134.3.3.2 Real Life Applications:Inoculation ProgramsInoculating Children Against Peer Pressure to SmokeInoculating Children Against the Influence of AdvertisingImplications of Attitude Inoculation4.3.3.2 Real Life Applicati114社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件115社会心理学第三讲-行为与态度课件116