资源描述
A Brief IntroductionvTheUnitedStatesofAmerica(commonlyreferredtoastheUnitedStates,theU.S.,theUSA,orAmerica)isafederalconstitutionalrepubliccomprisingfiftystatesandafederaldistrict.vThecountryissituatedmostlyincentralNorthAmerica,whereitsforty-eightcontiguousstatesandWashington,D.C.,thecapitaldistrict,liebetweenthePacificandAtlanticOceans,borderedbyCanadatothenorthandMexicotothesouth.vThestateofAlaskaisinthenorthwestofthecontinent,withCanadatoitseastandRussiatothewestacrosstheBeringStrait.ThestateofHawaiiisanarchipelago(群岛)inthemid-Pacific.vThecountryalsopossessesseveralterritories,orinsular(海岛的)areas,scatteredaroundtheCaribbeanandPacific.In Spring，2009 A Brief IntroductionvAt3.79millionsquaremiles(9.83millionkm)andwithabout305millionpeople,theUnitedStatesisthethirdorfourthlargestcountrybytotalarea,andthirdlargestbylandareaandbypopulation.vTheUnitedStatesisoneoftheworldsmostethnicallydiverseandmulticulturalnations,theproductoflarge-scaleimmigrationfrommanycountries.vTheU.S.economyisthelargestnationaleconomyintheworld,withanestimated2008grossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofUS$14.3trillion(23%oftheworldtotalbasedonnominalGDPandalmost21%atpurchasingpowerparity).In Spring，2009 A Brief IntroductionvThenationwasfoundedbythirteencoloniesofGreatBritainlocatedalongtheAtlanticseaboard.OnJuly4,1776,theyissuedtheDeclarationofIndependence,whichproclaimedtheirindependencefromGreatBritainandtheirformationofacooperativeunion.vTherebelliousstatesdefeatedGreatBritainintheAmericanRevolutionaryWar,thefirstsuccessfulcolonialwarofindependence.vAfederalconventionadoptedthecurrentUnitedStatesConstitutiononSeptember17,1787;itsratificationthefollowingyearmadethestatespartofasinglerepublicwithastrongcentralgovernment.vTheBillofRights,comprisingtenconstitutionalamendmentsguaranteeingmanyfundamentalcivilrightsandfreedoms,wasratifiedin1791.In Spring，2009 A Brief IntroductionvInthe19thcentury,theUnitedStatesacquiredlandfromFrance,Spain,theUnitedKingdom,Mexico,andRussia,andannexedtheRepublicofTexasandtheRepublicofHawaii.vDisputesbetweentheagrarianSouthandindustrialNorthoverstatesrightsandtheexpansionoftheinstitutionofslaveryprovokedtheAmericanCivilWarofthe1860s.vTheNorthsvictorypreventedapermanentsplitofthecountryandledtotheendoflegalslaveryintheUnitedStates.vBythe1870s,thenationaleconomywastheworldslargest.vTheSpanishAmericanWarandWorldWarIconfirmedthecountrysstatusasamilitarypower.vIn1945,theUnitedStatesemergedfromWorldWarIIasthefirstcountrywithnuclearweapons,apermanentmemberoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,andafoundingmemberofNATO.TheendoftheColdWarlefttheUnitedStatesasthesolesuperpower.vThecountryaccountsforapproximately50%ofglobalmilitaryspendingandisaleadingeconomic,political,andculturalforceintheworld.In Spring，2009 The RockiesvTheRockies,thebackboneoftheNorthAmericanContinent,isalsoknownastheContinentalDivide.In Spring，2009 The Appalachian mountainsTheAppalachianmountainsarelocallyknownbydifferentnames:theGreenmountainsandthewhitemountainsinNewEngland,theCatskillsinNewYork,theAllegheniesalongtheeasternseaboard,theCumberlandsinKentucky,theBlueRidgemountainsinVirginia,theGreatSmokiesontheTennessee-NorthCarolinaborderIn Spring，2009 The MississippivTheMississippiflows3770km(2340mi)fromitssourceatLakeItascainnorthernMinnesotatoitsmouthintheGulfofMexico.WhiletheMississippiranksasthesecondlongestriverintheUnitedStatesaftertheMissouriRiver,itcarriesagreatervolumeofwaterthananyotherAmericanriver.Thismap,illustratingthethreemajorriversofthecentralUnitedStates,showsthattheMissouriconvergeswiththeMississippinearSt.Louis,andtheOhioconvergeswiththeMississippiinsouthernIllinois(atCairo).In Spring，2009 The Missouri RivervTheMissouriRiver,flowingthroughcentralSouthDakota,isoneofthelongestriversintheUnitedStates.Thismagnificentriver,forcedintoitspresentcoursebythefaceoftheContinentalglacier,isformedbythejoiningoftheGallatin,Madison,andJeffersonrivers,nearThreeForks,Montana.TheMissouriRiverflowsgenerallysouthandeast,enteringintotheMississippiRivernearSt.Louis,Missouri.TheMissouriRiverbasin,includingover95majortributary支流riversandstreams,encompassesover338.5millionacres.TheterraininthebasinrangesfromtheeasternslopeoftheRockyMountainstothefertilesoilsofthecentralprairies.vTheMissouriRiver,priortoitsmodificationbyman,wasknownforitsshiftingchannels,highturbidity混浊,andperiodicfloods.Thisriver,commonlyreferredtoastheBigMuddy,servedasatravelwayandthreadoflifeforpeopleandwildlife,alike.Thefloodsthatusedtooccur,oftenwithdestructiveforce,wereviewedwithawe敬畏anddismaybymanywhitesettlers.ThefloodsactuallyservedaveryimportantfunctionfortheMissouriRivervalleyecosystem.Floodsprovidedanimportantexchangeofnutrientsbetweenthefloodplainandtheriver.Additionally,periodicfloodsreplenishedbackwatersandscoured,aswellasbuilt,sandbarhabitatcriticalformanywildlifespecies.In Spring，2009 The ColombiavTheColumbiaRiveristhelargestriverinthePacificNorthwestregionofNorthAmerica.ItisnamedaftertheColumbiaRediviva,thefirstshipfromthewesternworldknowntohavetraveleduptheriver.ItstretchesfromBritishColumbiathroughWashingtonstate,formingmuchoftheborderbetweenWashingtonandOregonbeforeemptyingintothePacificOcean.Theriveris1,243miles(2,000km)long.In Spring，2009 The ColombiavTheColumbiaflows1,243miles(2,000km)fromitsheadwatersinBritishColumbia(BC),Canada,tothePacificOceanontheOregonWashingtonborderintheUnitedStates.In Spring，2009 The Colorado rivervTheColoradoRiverisariverinthesouthwesternUnitedStatesandnorthwesternMexico,approximately1,450mi(2,330km)long,drainingapartofthearidregionsonthewesternslopeoftheRockyMountains.ThenaturalcourseoftheriverflowsintotheGulfofCalifornia,buttheheavyuseoftheriverasanirrigationsourcefortheImperialValleyhasdesiccatedthelowercourseoftheriverinMexicosuchthatitnolongerconsistentlyreachesthesea.the Hoover Dam In Spring，2009 The Rio Grande rivervRioGrande,(Mexican:RioBravodelNorte),aNorthAmericanriversharedbytheUnitedStatesandMexico.ItbeginsintheRockyMountainsofsouthwesternColoradoandflowssouthwardthroughNewMexicotothewesterntipofTexas.FromtheretheriverflowssoutheastwardtotheGulfofMexico,formingtheboundarybetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStates.TheRioGrandeis1,885miles(3,134km)long.In Spring，2009 Map of the Great LakesvtheGreatLakesareLakeSuperior,whichisthelargestfreshwaterlakeintheworld,LakeMichigan,theonlyentirelyintheU.S.,LakeHuron,LakeEireandLakeOntario.TheyarelocatedbetweenCanadaandtheUnitedStatesexceptLakeMichigan.In Spring，2009 Map of the Great LakesvTheGreatLakesareachainoffreshwaterlakeslocatedineasternNorthAmerica,ontheCanadaUnitedStatesborder.ConsistingofLakesSuperior,Michigan,Huron,Erie,andOntario,theyformthelargestgroupoffreshwaterlakesonEarth.Theyaresometimesreferredtoasinlandseas,CanadaandtheUnitedStatesThirdCoast,ortheIndustrialHeartland.In Spring，2009 Seven Geographical regionsvTraditionallyfromtheeasttothewesttheUnitedStatescanbedividedintosevengeographicalregions.vNewEnglandvTheMiddleAtlanticStatesvTheMidwestvTheSouthvTheAmericanWestvThePacificCoastvTheNewStatesIn Spring，2009 New EnglandvNewEnglandisaregionoftheUnitedStateslocatedinthenortheasterncornerofthecountry,boundedbytheAtlanticOcean,CanadaandNewYorkState,andconsistingofthemodernstatesofMaine,NewHampshire,Vermont,Massachusetts,RhodeIsland,andConnecticut.In Spring，2009 New EnglandInoneoftheearliestEnglishsettlementsintheNewWorld,EnglishPilgrimsfleeingreligiouspersecutioninEuropefirstsettledinNewEnglandin1620,inthecolonyofPlymouth.Inthelate18thcentury,theNewEnglandcolonieswouldbeamongthefirstNorthAmericanBritishcoloniestodemonstrateambitionsofindependencefromtheBritishCrown,althoughtheywouldlateropposetheWarof1812betweentheUnitedStatesandBritain.Weatherpatternsarehighlyvariableandclimatevariesthroughouttheregion.In Spring，2009 New EnglandvNewEnglandcontainssomeoftheoldestandmostrenownedinstitutionsofhigherlearningintheUnitedStates.vThefirstsuchinstitution,subsequentlynamedHarvardCollege,wasfoundedatCambridge,Massachusetts,totrainpreachers,in1636.vYaleUniversitywasfoundedinBranford,Connecticut,in1701,andawardedthenationsfirstdoctoral(Ph.D.)degreein1861.YalemovedtoNewHaven,Connecticut,in1718whereithasremainedtothepresentday.vBrownUniversity,thefirstcollegeinthenationtoacceptstudentsofallreligiousaffiliationsandseventh-oldestinstitutionofhigherlearning,wasfoundedinProvidence,RhodeIsland,in1764.vDartmouthCollegewasfoundedfiveyearslaterinHanover,NewHampshire,withthemissionofeducatingthelocalAmericanIndianpopulationaswellasEnglishyouth.vInadditiontofouroutofeightIvyLeagueschools,NewEnglandalsocontainstheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT),theLittleThree,fouroftheoriginalsevensisters,thebulkofinstitutionsidentifiedastheLittleIvies,andtheFiveCollegesconsortiuminwesternMassachusetts.In Spring，2009 The Mid-Atlantic StatesvTheMid-AtlanticStates(alsocalledMiddleAtlanticStatesorsimplyMidAtlantic)formoneoftheninegeographicdivisionswithintheUnitedStatesthatareofficiallyrecognizedbytheUnitedStatesCensusBureau.vInthecensusclassification,thisdivisionisoneoftwomakinguptheNortheast.Thedivisionconsistsofthreestates:NewJersey,NewYork,andPennsylvania.vThisdefinitioncorrespondswiththeregionstraditionaldefinitionasthesectionoftheAtlanticSeaboardbetweenNewEnglandandtheSouth.However,thestatessouthoftheNortheast,centeredinDelaware,Maryland,andVirginia(notinthecensusregion),arealsoconsideredbysometobepartoftheMid-Atlanticregion.vThetraditionalMid-AtlanticStatescomprisethemostdensely-populatedofthenineU.S.regions,andanchorthemegalopoliswhichrunsfromBostontoWashington,D.C.In Spring，2009 The Middle Atlantic statesvEarlysettlersweremostlyfarmers,tradersandfishermen.Theregion,calledtheMiddleColonies,servedasastrategicbridgebetweenNorthandSouth.vPhiladelphia,midwaybetweenthenorthernandsoutherncolonies,washometotheContinentalCongress,theconventionofdelegatesfromtheoriginalcoloniesthatorganizedtheAmericanRevolution.vThesamecitywasthebirthplaceoftheDeclarationofIndependencein1776andtheU.S.Constitutionin1787.vTheMiddleAtlanticstatesprovidedtheyoungUnitedStateswithheavyindustryandservedasthemeltingpotofnewimmigrantsfromEurope.vCitiesgrewalongmajorshippingroutesandwaterways.SuchflourishingcitiesincludedNewYorkCityontheHudsonRiver,PhiladelphiaontheDelawareRiver,andBaltimoreontheChesapeakeBay.In Spring，2009 The MidwestvChicagoisthelargestcityintheregion,followedbyDetroitandIndianapolis.vChicago-Naperville-Jolietisthelargestmetropolitanstatisticalarea,followedbyDetroit-Warren-Livonia,Minneapolis-St.Paul-Bloomington,andGreaterSt.Louis.vTheMidwestern United States,intheUSgenerallyreferredtosimplyastheMidwest,isoneofthefourgeographicregionswithintheUnitedStatesofAmericathatareofficiallyrecognizedbytheUnitedStatesCensusBureau.vTheregionconsistsoftwelvestates:Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,Kansas,Michigan,Minnesota,Missouri,Nebraska,NorthDakota,Ohio,SouthDakota,andWisconsin.In Spring，2009 The South Atlantic StatesvTheSouthAtlanticStates:Florida,Georgia,NorthCarolina,SouthCarolina,Virginia,WestVirginia,Maryland,Washington,D.C.,andDelawarevTheEastSouthCentralStates:Alabama,Kentucky,MississippiandTennesseevTheWestSouthCentralStates:Arkansas,Louisiana,Oklahoma,andTexasIn Spring，2009 The SouthvTheSouth,aregionoftheUnitedStatescomprisedchieflyofstateswhichwerepartoftheConfederacyduringtheAmericanCivilWarvTheSouthernUnitedStatescommonlyreferredtoastheAmericanSouth,Dixie,orsimplytheSouthconstitutesalargedistinctiveregioninthesoutheasternandsouth-centralUnitedStates.vBecauseoftheregionsuniqueculturalandhistoricheritage,includingNativeAmericans;earlyEuropeansettlementsofSpanish,EnglishandFrenchheritage;importationofhundredsofthousandsofenslavedAfricans;growthofalargeproportionofAfricanAmericansinthepopulation,relianceonslavelabor,andlegacyoftheConfederacyaftertheAmericanCivilWar,theSouthdevelopeditsowncustoms,literature,musicalstyles,andvariedcuisines.In Spring，2009 the WestvTheWesternUnitedStatescommonlyreferredtoastheAmericanWestorsimplyTheWesttraditionallyreferstotheregioncomprisingthewesternmoststatesoftheUnitedStates(seegeographicalterminologysectionforfurtherdiscussionoftheseterms).vBecausetheUnitedStatesexpandedwestwardafteritsfounding,themeaningoftheWesthasevolvedovertime.vPriortoabout1800,thecrestoftheAppalachianMountainswasseenasthewesternfrontier.vSinceabout1800,thefrontiermovedfurtherwestandtheMississippiRiverhassincebeenreferencedastheeasternmostpossibleboundaryofTheWest.vAccordingtotheU.S.CoastGuard,TheWesternRiversSystemconsistsoftheMississippi,Ohio,Missouri,Illinois,Tennessee,Cumberland,ArkansasandWhiteRiversandtheirtributaries,andcertainotherriversthatflowtowardstheGulfofMexiconottheSacramentoandColumbia.vTheWesthadplayedanimportantpartinAmericanhistory;theOldWestisembeddedinAmericasfolklore.In Spring，2009 the WestvInitsmostexpansivedefinition,thewesternU.S.isthelargestregion,coveringmorethanhalfthelandareaoftheUnitedStates.vItisalsothemostgeographicallydiverse,incorporatinggeographicregionssuchasthePacificCoast,thetemperaterainforestsoftheNorthwest,theRockyMountains,theGreatPlains,mostofthetall-grassprairieeastwardtoWesternWisconsin,Illinois,thewesternOzarkplateau,thewesternportionsofthesouthernforests,theGulfCoast,andallofthedesertareaslocatedintheUnitedStatesIn Spring，2009 The Pacific CoastvThepacificCoastincludesthewesternpartsofWashingtonandOregonandnearlyallofCalifornia.vImportantcities:LosAngeles,SanFrancisco,Portland,andSeattleIn Spring，2009 American PopulationvTheUnitedStatesoftheAmericanisthethirdmostpopulouscountyintheworldafterChinaandIndia.vTraditionally,themainstreamAmericanwerecalledWASPs,thatis,WhiteAnglo-SaxonProtestants.vThepopulationoftheUnitedStatesincludesalargevarietyofethnicgroupscomingfrommanyraces,nationalities,andreligions.vPeoplerefertotheUnitedStatesasmeltingpotandthedominantpeopleareBritish.vAmericanismadeupofWASP+MM,thatis,White,AngloSaxon,ProtestantsplusMiddleClassandMale.In Spring，2009 Demographic features of American PopulationvTheUnitedStateshasaverydiversepopulationthirty-oneancestrygroupshavemorethanamillionmembersvWhiteAmericansarethelargestracialgroup,withGermanAmericans,IrishAmericans,andEnglishAmericansconstitutingthreeofthecountrysfourlargestancestrygroupsvAfricanAmericansarethenationslargestracialminorityandthirdlargestancestrygroupvAsianAmericansarethecountryssecondlargestracialminority;thetwolargestAsianAmericanancestrygroupsareChineseandFilipinovIn2007,theU.S.populationincludedanestimated4.5millionpeoplewithsomeAmericanIndianorAlaskannativeancestry(2.9millionexclusivelyofsuchancestry)andover1millionwithsomenativeHawaiianorPacificislandancestry(0.5millionexclusively).vThedemographicfeaturesofthepopulationoftheUnitedStatesincludespopulationdensity,ethnicity,educationlevel,healthofthepopulace,economicstatus,religiousaffiliationsandotheraspectsofthepopulation.In Spring，2009 Demographic features of PopulationvTheUnitedStateshasapopulationof306million.vItisaveryurbanizednation,with81%ofthepopulationresidingincitiesandsuburbsasofmid-year2005(theworldwideurbanratewas49%).vThemeanpopulationcenteroftheUnitedStateshasconsistentlyshiftedwestwardandsouthward,withCaliforniaandTexascurrentlythemostpopulousstatesvThetotalfertilityrateintheUnitedStatesestimatedfor2008is2.1childrenperwoman,whichisroughlythereplacementlevelvHowever,U.S.populationgrowthisamongthehighestinindustrializedcountries,duetostrongimmigrationvPeopleunder20yearsofagemadeupoveraquarteroftheU.S.population(27.6%),andpeopleage65andovermadeupone-eighth(12.6%)in2007.vThenationalmedianagewas36.7years.In Spring，2009 American immigrationvAmericanimmigration(emigrationtotheUnitedStatesofAmerica)referstothemovementofnon-residentstotheUnitedStates.vImmigrationhasbeenamajorsourceofpopulationgrowthandculturalchangethroughoutmuchofAmericanhistory.vTheeconomic,social,andpoliticalaspectsofimmigrationhavecausedcontroversyregardingethnicity,religion,economicbenefits,jobgrowth,settlementpatterns,impactonupwardsocialmobility,levelsofcriminality,nationalities,politicalloyalties,moralvalues,andworkhabits.vAsof2006,theUnitedStatesacceptsmorelegalimmigrantsaspermanentresidentsthananyothercountryintheworld.In2006,thenumberofimmigrantstotaled37.5million.vAlmost20millionpeopleor7.8%ofthetotalpopulationwereimmigrantsin1992.vBetween80%and90%ofimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesnowisfromAsianandHispaniccountries.vArizona,Nevada,andFloridahavebeenthefastestgrowingstatesinpopulationforthelast20years.In Spring，2009 American ImmigrationvthreeimmigrationwavesvInhistory,peoplefromdifferentcountriesintheworldrushedtoAmericanthreetimes.vThefirstoftheseimmigrationwavesinthemid-1810sandreachedthehighestpointin1845.vThesecondwavecoveredtheperiodbetween1860and1890.vThelargestofthethreeimmigrationwavesinAmericanwasfrom1890-1914.In Spring，2009 American ImmigrationvTheybroughttheirownculturetoAmericanandlaterondifferentculturesweremixedtogether.ThustheuniqueAmericancultureisformed,acommonculturallifewithcommonlysharedvalues.vThefirstimmigrantsintheAmericanhistorycanefromEnglandandNetherlands.vImmigrationaccountsforamajorsourceofpopulationgrowth,vTheUnitedStateshasamoreorlessopen-doorpolicytoimmigrantsfromindependenceuntil1960s.vEllisIslandofNewYorkwasanimportantimmigrationreceptionspotinthe1890sandattheturnofthecentury.In Spring，2009 American ImmigrationvWhileaninfluenceofnewresidentsfromdifferentculturespresentssomechallenges,theUnitedStateshasalwaysbeenenergizedbyitsimmigrantpopulations.vAtthe1998commencementaddressatPortlandStateUniversity,U.S.presidentBillClintonvoicedsupportforimmigrants,includingimmigrantsfromAsiaandLatinAmericawhenhesaidthatAmericahasconstantlydrawnstrengthandspiritfromwaveafterwaveofimmigrants.vTheyhaveprovedtobethemostrestless,themostadventurous,themostinnovative,themostindustriousofpeople.”vGiventhedistanceofNorthAmericafromEurasiaandthedifficultyoftravelbeforecommercialairlines,mosthistoricalU.S.immigrationwasrisky.vPassengeraircrafthavefacilitatedtraveltotheUnitedStatessincethe1960s,butmigrationremainsdifficult,expensiveanddangerousforthosewhocrosstheUnitedStatesMexicoborderillegally.In Spring，2009 American ImmigrationvThehistoryofimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesofAmericaisthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesitself,andthejourneyfrombeyondtheseaisanelementfoundintheAmericanmyth,appearingoverandoveragainineverythingfromTheGodfathertoGangsofNewYorktoTheSongofMyselftoNeilDiamondsAmericatotheanimatedfeatureAnAmericanTail.vAsinmanymyths,theimmigrantstoryhasbeenexaggerated.Immigrants,includingnewcolonistsfrombeforetheestablishmentoftheUnitedStatesasaseparatecountry,werenevermorethan15%ofthepopulationandusuallyconsiderablyless.vImmigrantswereoftenpooranduneducatedbutthesucceedinggenerationstookadvantageoftheopportunitiesoffered.In Spring，2009 American immigration legislation vTheNaturalizationActof1790establishedtherulesfornaturalizedcitizenship,asperArticle1,Section8oftheConstitution.vTheChineseExclusionActof1882wasthefirst(andonly)explicitlyrace-basedimmigrationact.vTheActof1891establishedaCommissionerofImmigrationintheTreasuryDepartment.vTheEmergencyQuota(配额)Actof1921establishednationalquotasonimmigrationbasedonthenumberofforeign-bornresidentsofeachnationalitywhowerelivingintheUnitedStatesasofthe1910census.In Spring，2009 American immigration legislationvTheImmigrationActof1924aimedatfreezingthecurrentethnicdistributioninresponsetorisingimmigrationfromSouthernandEasternEurope,aswellasAsia.vTheNationalOriginsFormulawasestablishedwiththeImmigrationactof1924.vTotalannualimmigrationwascappedat150,000.Immigrantsfitintotwocategories:thosefromquota-nationsandthosefromnon-quotanations.vImmigrantvisasfromquota-nationswererestrictedtothesameratioofresidentsfromthecountryoforiginoutof150,000astheratioofforeign-bornnationalsintheUnitedStates.vThepercentageoutof150,000wastherelativenumberofvisasaparticularnationreceived.In Spring，2009 vTheChineseExclusionRepealActof1943repealedtheChineseExclusionActandpermittedChinesenationalsalreadyinthecountrytobecomenaturalizedcitizens.vTheNationalityActof1940pertainchieflytoNationalityatBirth,NationalitythroughNaturalization,andLossofNationality.Certainmiscellaneousmattersarealsodealtwith.vTheImmigrationandNationalityActof1952(orMcCarran-WalterAct)somewhatliberalizedimmigrationf
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